H.S. 553:
Modules
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A. Introduction |
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B. Methods |
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C. Planning |
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D. Cost |
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F. Organizing |
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G. Motivation |
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H. Negotiation |
Modules
Objective:
1. Management: designing and maintaining an environment
in which individuals, working in groups,
can accomplish preselected missions and objectives.
2. Descriptive A factual account of management processes
Approach: that focuses on how decisions are made
(closely associated with political science).
3. Normative A rational analysis of management processes
approach: that focuses on how decisions should be made
(closely associated with economics).
4. Prescriptive Analytic aids to management processes
approach: that focuses on how decisions could be made
(closely associated with policy analysis).
5. Systems a holistic, comprehensive approach to management
approach: that emphasizes inputs, processes, and outputs
and seeks change that is optimal and long range.
6. Incrementalism: an alternate approach to management
that emphasizes feasible solutions
and seeks change that is marginal and short-term.
7. Planning: decision making in advance:
selecting missions and objectives, with
strategies, policies, procedures, and rules,
and arranging them into programs and budgets.
8. Organizing: developing an intentional structure of roles.
9. Staffing: defining, recruiting, filling, and keeping filled,
the positions in an organization.
10. Leadership: the art of influencing individuals
to strive willingly and enthusiastically
toward the accomplishment of group goals.
11. Control: the process of conforming to plans:
establishing standards,
measuring performance, and
correcting undesirable deviations.
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B. Methods: How can we study management?
Objective:
1. case studies management by experience (cases):
approach: consider problems, assign positions,
debate in class
(identifies successes and failures)
2. interpersonal studies management as a human relations problem
behavior (based on psychology)
approach:
3. group behavior studies management as group behavior
approach: (based on social psychology)
4. cooperative studies management as a system
social systems whose purpose is cooperation
approach: (also known as organizational theory).
5. sociotechnical studies management as systems and technology
systems approach that influence people's attitudes and behavior.
6. decision studies management as a decision problem.
theory
approach:
7. systems studies the interdependency of an organization
approach: by examining inputs, processes, and outputs.
8. management studies management as a math problem.
science
approach:
9. contingency management depends on the circumstances.
approach:
10. managerial studies managers in 3 roles: interpersonal
roles informational
approach decision making
11. operational studies what managers DO.
approach: (also known as classical or traditional school).
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C. Planning
Objective:
Hierarchy
1. Purpose: the basic function of an organization
(Mission) (or any department within it).
2. Objective: the desired outcomes (ends) of an activity.
(goal)
3. Strategy: a general course of action.
4. Policy: guides to thinking in decision making
(must allow individual discretion).
5. Procedure: guide to action for implementing policies.
(must allow individual discretion).
6. Rule: required action (or nonaction)
(allowing no discretion).
7. Program: a complex of goals, policies, procedure, rules
to carry out a given course of action.
8. Budget: "numberized" programs and plans.
Principles
9. Commitment: Planning should encompass an adequate
time into the future to foresee
consequences of actions taken today.
10. Flexibility: The costs of flexibility should be
weighed against the risks of future
commitment.
11. Navigational The more commitment there is to the
change: future, the more periodic checking is
needed in order to adjust plans.
12. Limiting In solving a problem, attention should
factor: be directed to factors that make the
most difference in selecting a solution.
Objectives
13. effectiveness: the achievement of stated objectives
14. efficiency: the achievement of stated objectives
with the least amount of resources
15. productivity: the output-input ratio
within a time period
with due consideration of quality
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D. Cost
Objective:
1. cost: negative impacts associated with a decision
2. opportunity cost: the value of a resource (in dollars)
in terms of its alternative use
3. sunk costs: spending that cannot be recovered
(a previous cost that is not
affected by a current decision)
4. marginal cost: the change in cost relative to
a designated unit of output
5. incremental the change in costs relative to
costs: a designated unit of economic activity
6. average cost: total costs divided by total units
7. cost a search for the best ratio of
effectiveness benefits to costs
analysis:
8. relevant the costs considered relevant to
costs: a particular business decision
(e.g., fixed, variable, marginal)
9. fixed costs: costs that do not change
with the level of output.
10. variable costs that change
costs: with the level of output.
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E. Legal Concepts
Objective:
Basic types of law (by precedence)
1. constitutional: fundamental laws of a government
includes: federal and state constitutions,
city charters
2. statutory: laws passed by vote of legislature or public
includes: statutes, ordinances, referenda
3. administrative: laws written by appointed officials (agencies)
includes: regulations
4. common: laws taken from previous court decisions
includes: tort law = a "private wrong" separate
from statutes and contracts.
(also includes nuisance laws and eminent domain)
Other fundamental powers
5. nuisance laws: government may limit use of property
if it harms others or is "unreasonable"
6. eminent domain: government may "take" property if:
for the public interest, and
fair compensation is made
7. police power: government must have power to enforce its own
regulations
Responsibilities
8. due process: fairness and completeness of laws
9. equal consistency of law
protection:
10. exclusionary evidence must be legally obtained
rule:
11. demurrer: admit to facts but challenge legal propriety
Other
12. Stare decisus: "the decision stands"
13. Rights: a power, privilege, or interest, protected by law.
14. Duties: the corresponding responsibility
to respect a right.
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F. Organizing
Objective:
1. organization: an intentional structure of roles.
2. roles: responsibilities and authority.
3. responsibilities: activities classified by objectives.
4. authority: assigned power.
5. power: the ability to influence persons or groups:
legitimate power
referent power
expertise
reward power
coercive power
6. department: a distinct area of an organization over which
a manager has authority for the performance
of responsibilities.
(e.g., organizational chart)
Principles of Organization
1. Unity of Individuals in an organization
objective: should have complementary objectives.
2. Span of There is a limit to the number of
management: persons an individual can effectively
manage (the number varies).
3. Parity of Authority should match the
authority and responsibilities of a position.
responsibility:
4. Unity of Individuals should report to
command: a single superior.
5. Flexibility: The more an environment is
complex and changing,
the more an organization
needs flexibility.
Mistakes in organizing
1. failure to plan
2. overorganization: too inflexible
underorganization: unclear about relationships
3. withholding information
4. improper delegation of authority
5. violating basic principles of organization
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G. Motivation
Objective:
1. Maslow: hierarchy of needs
little research support for movement up hierarchy
however, useful, measurable, and can vary
2. Herzberg: hygiene and motivators
similar to Maslow
3. Vroom force = valence x expectancy
expectancy
theory: where: force = motivation
valence = preference for an outcome
expectancy = subjective probability
4. Skinner: positive reinforcement (or behavior modification)
identify work needs
create proper work environment
prompt rewards for performance
(punishment produces poor results)
5. McClelland: 3 needs: power ------------------ affiliation
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achievement
managers have less need for affiliation
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H. Negotiation
Objective:
1. win-win an agreement that improves all parties
negotiation:
2. zero-sum the gains and losses of all parties = 0
games:
3. positions: what you want
4. interests: why you want it
5. Principled based on interests
negotiation: (distinguished from compromise)
6. BATNA: best alternative to a negotiated agreement
7. Delphi a group technique (normally used for forecasting)
technique: anonymous, statistical, iterative
8. pre- getting started (preconditions)
negotiation: representation
agenda
protocol
joint fact-finding
9. negotiation: inventing options
packaging agreements
written agreements
commitment, ratification
10. post- linking to government
negotiation: monitoring
renegotiation
11. Mediation A. No-risk narrowing of options
Techniques: B. "Collection of agreements" vs.
"Boulder in the road"
C. External pressure
D. Deadlines and marathon sessions
E. Deflating extreme positions
F. Consequences of no agreement: BATNA
G. Mediator's proposals
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