AP BIOLOGY OUTLINE: EVOLUTION 1. DARWIN-WALLACE THEORY AND ITS PREDECESSORS 2. MODERN CONCEPTS OF NATURAL SELECTION A. POPULATION GENETICS: HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM AND MUTATION, GENETIC DRIFT, POLYMORPHISM, SELECTION B. SPECIATION 3. ADAPTIVE RADIATION 4. EVOLVED DIVERSITY A. PHYLOGENY OF ANIMALS AND PROTISTS B. PHYLOGENY OF MAJOR PLANT GROUPS C. HOMOLOGY, ANALOGY, CONVERGENCE, PARALLELISM 5. CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS: TAXONOMIC SYSTEMS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE ESSAY QUESTIONS: 1959: Discuss how each of the following contributes evidence that evolution has occurred: a. Paleontology b. Geographical distribution c. Biochemical studies 1959: Each group of organisms has a specific set of adaptations (either in the parent animals or in the eggs they produce) which helps to insure the survival of sufficient young to maintain the population. Briefly summarize and compare the structures or other adaptations bearing on this problem as found in an amphibian, a reptile, a marsupial, and a placental mammal. What generalizations can be made from these comparisons? 1960: Although the arthropods began as aquatic animals, the majority have become terrestrial. Discuss the adaptive modifications in the arthropods for terrestrial existence with reference to locomotion, reproduction, and development, respiration, and water balance. 1960: The factors of mutation and isolation are believed to play significant roles in speciation. For each of these factors discuss: a. how it may occur b. the role it plays in speciation 1963: Discuss the evolution of both land animals and land plants from aquatic ancestors with respect to their adaptations for: a. water conservation b. support c. embryo protection 1964: On the archipelago of the Galapagos Islands, which most geologists believe to be of volcanic origin without ever having had any land connection with the west coast of South America, Darwin discovered a group of small finches. These birds have since been classified into more than a dozen species. These birds have differences, particu- larly in their adaptations for food-getting. It is believed that all these species are descendants of a single species which migrated from the mainland. On the mainland there has never been more than a single species even though the rate of mutations is thought to be the same in both locations. Explain how each of the following could have played a role in the development of the many species of Galapagos finches: a. polyploidy b. genetic drift c. geographic isolation d. unoccupied ecologic niches e. Explain why the mainland species has not differentiated into more than one species. 1966: In the vertebrates, changes in mechanisms of fertilization and embryonic development have been of adaptive value. Compare these mechanisms and indicate their contribution to the evolutionary success of the following animals: a. fish b. amphibian c. bird d. mammal 1966: The theory of organic evolution is based on interpretations of observations from diverse areas. Describe the observations from each of the following areas and explain how they support the theory: a. paleontology b. comparative anatomy or embryology c. biochemistry or genetics 1970: An interbreeding population sometimes gives rise to two populations. Discuss the possible roles of each of the following factors in the formation of two distinct species. a. isolation b. selection c. mutation d. genetic drift (Sewall Wright phenomenon) 1972: Cite evidence from biochemistry, paleontology, and population genetics that has led biologists to accept the theory of evolution. 1973: On the basis of reliable sampling studies made during a 5-year period, the following observations were made about the turtle populations of two lakes, one 300 miles north of the other. Indicate and discuss factors that might account for this unequal distribution. a. Turtles of species A are abundant in the northern lake where turtles of species B are rare. b. Turtles of species B are abundant in the southern lake where turtles of species A are rare. 1974: Hereditary variations are essential to the evolution of populations. a. Describe the different types of hereditary variability b. Explain how this variability can lead to the origin and maintenance of species. 1975: Most mammals live on land. Describe and discuss the evolutionary adaptations that make mammals better adapted to life on land than amphibians. 1977: Two geographically isolated populations usually will diverge over a long period of time. a. Describe how the two populations may become different, including factors that can account for these differences. b. Discuss factors that may prevent interbreeding if the two populations ever again occupy the same area. 1978: Describe the nature of each of the following and discuss the role of natural selection in each situation: a. Industrial melanism b. DDT resistance in insects c. Sickle cell anemia and malaria 1979: Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection had a significant influence on the under- standing of the evolution of organism. Discuss each of the following: a. the importance of Darwin's voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle to the development of his theory; b. the major points proposed by Darwin in his theory; c. two major refinements in Darwin's theory that stem from modern findings; 1980: Discuss the significance of each of the events listed below in the evolution of living things. a. Primordial reducing atmosphere b. Origin of photosynthesis c. Increase in atmospheric oxygen and the development of the ozone layer d. Origin of eukaryotes 1981: Define, discuss, and give an example of how each of the following isolating mechanisms contributes to speciation in organisms. a. Geographical barriers b. Ecological (including seasonal) isolation c. Behavioral isolation d. Polyploidy 1982: Describe the special relationship between the two terms in each of the following pairs. a. Convergent evolution of organisms and Australia b. Blood groups and genetic drift c. Birds of prey and DDT 1984: Describe the modern theory of evolution and discuss how it is supported by evidence from two of the following three areas: a. Population genetics b. Molecular biology c. Comparative anatomy and embryology 1984: Describe how the following adaptations have increased the evolutionary success of the organisms that possess them. Include in your discussion the structure and function related to each adaptation. a. C4 metabolism b. Amniotic egg c. Four-chambered heart d. Pollen 1986: Describe the process of speciation. Include in your discussion the factors that may contribute to the maintenance of genetic isolation. 1989: Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model. a. Indicate the conditions under which allele frequencies (p and Q) remain constant from one generation to the next. b. Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. (In rabbits the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti is due to a dominant allele, W.) c. If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit population after two generations? 1990: A. Describe the differences between the terms in each of the following pairs. (1) Coelomate versus acoelomate body plan (2) Protostome versus deuterostome development (3) Radial versus bilateral symmetry B. Explain how each of these pairs of features was important in constructing the phylogenetic tree shown below. Use specific examples from the tree in your discussion. Chordata Arthropoda Annelida Echinodermata Mollusca Nematoda Rotifera Platyhelminthes Cnidaria Porifera 1991: Discuss how each of the following has contributed to the evolutionary success of the organisms in which they are found. a. Seeds b. Mammalian placenta c. Diploidy 1992: Evolution is one of the unifying concepts of modern biology. Explain the mechanisms that lead to evolutionary change. Describe how scientists use each of the following as evidence for evolution: 1) Bacterial resistance to antibiotics 2) Comparative biochemistry 3) The fossil record 1994: Genetic variation is the raw material for evolution. a. Explain three cellular and/or molecular mechanisms that introduce variation into the gene pool of a plant or animal population. b. Explain the evolutionary mechanisms that can change the composition of the gene pool. 1994: Select two of the following three pairs and discuss the evolutionary replationships between the two members of each pair you have chosen. In your discussion include structural adaptations and their functional significance. PAIR A: green algae vascular plants PAIR B: prokaryotes eukaryotes PAIR C: amphibians reptiles