Geology

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Recent Faculty and Student Publications


All Recent Publications

(CSUN Faculty, *CSUN Graduate Student, **CSUN Undergraduate Student)

2023

  • Morrone, C., Le Pera, E., Marsaglia, K.M., and De Rosa, R., 2023 in press, Provenance controls on volcaniclastic beach sand: example from the Aeolian archipelago, Mediterranean Sea, in, Di Capua, et al. (eds.) Volcanic Processes in the Sedimentary Record: When Volcanoes Meet the Environment, Geological Society of London Special Publication, v. 250, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP520-2021-91

  • *Persad, L., and Marsaglia, K.M., 2023 in press, Data Report: Detailed lithologic columns for IODP Expedition 385 and DSDP Leg 64 sites in the Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California, Mexico, IODP Scientific Results Volume 385.

  • Lizarralde, D., Teske, A., Höfig, T.W., González-Fernández, A., and the IODP Expedition 385 Scientists (includes K. Marsaglia), 2023, Carbon released by sill intrusion into young sediments measured through scientific drilling,  Geology, v. tbd, https://doi.org/10.1130/G50665.1

2022

  • Brackman, A.J.*, and Schwartz, J.J., 2022, The Formation of High Sr/Y Plutons in Cordilleran-Arc Crust by Crystal Accumulation and Melt Loss, Geosphere, 18 (2): 370–393 https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02400.1

  • Daniel, C.G., Indares, A., Medaris, L. Jr., Aronoff, R., Doe, M., Malone, D. and Schwartz, J.J., 2022, Linking the Pinware, Baraboo, and Picuris orogenies: recognition of a trans-Laurentian ca. 1500-1350 orogenic belt,in Whitmeyer, S.J., Williams, M.L., Kellett, D.A., and Tikoff, B., eds., Laurentia: Turning Points in the Evolution of a Continent: Geological Society of America Memoir 220, p. 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1130/2022.1220(11).

  • Klepeis, K.A., Schwartz, J.J., Miranda, E.A., Lindquist, P., Jongens, R., Turnbull, R., and Stowell H.H., 2022, The initiation and growth of transpressional shear zones through continental arc lithosphere, southwest New Zealand, Tectonics, https://doi:10.1029/2021TC007097.

  • Medaris, L. Jr., Daniel, C.G., Doe, M.F., James, J.V III, and Schwartz, J.J., 2022, Late Paleoproterozoic to Early Mesoproterozoic deposition of quartz arenites across southern Laurentia, in Whitmeyer, S.J., Williams, M.L., Kellett, D.A., and Tikoff, B., eds., Laurentia: Turning Points in the Evolution of a Continent: Geological Society of America Memoir 220, https://doi.org/10.1130/2022.1220(12)

  • Nie, J., W. Wang, R. Heermance, P. Gao, L. Xing, X. Zhang, R. Zhang, C. Garzione, and W. Xiao (2022), Late Miocene Tarim desert wetting linked with eccentricity minimum and East Asian monsoon weakening, Nature Communications, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-31577-w

  • Richter, F., J. Pearson, M. Vilkas, R.V. Heermance, C.N. Garzione, M.R. Cecil, G. Jepson, A. Moe, J. Xu, L. Liu, J. Chen (in press), Growth of the Southern Tian Shan-Pamir and its impact on central Asian climate, Geological Society of America Bulletin, https://doi.org/10/1130/B36471.1

  • Stowell, H.H., Schwartz, J.J., Bollen, E., Tulloch, A.J., Ramezani, J., and Klepeis, K. A., 2022, Timescales and rates of intrusive and metamorphic processes determined from zircon and garnet in migmatitic granulite, Fiordland, New Zealand, American Mineralogist, v. 107, p. 1116-1132, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2022-7967

  • Nagakura, T., Schubert, F., Wagner, D., Kallmeyer, J., and IODP Exp 385 Shipboard Scientific Party (includes K. Marsaglia), 2022, Biological Sulfate Reduction in Deep Subseafloor Sediment of Guaymas Basin: Frontiers in Microbiology, v. 13, 12p., Article 845250, doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.845250

  • *Sanchez, J.L., and Marsaglia, K.M., 2022, Preliminary study of the detrital sediments of Lindero Canyon: A stratigraphic unit potentially marking the transition from transrotation to transtension in the Santa Monica Mountains, Southern California: PS-SEPM Book, R.V. Ingersoll and K. Coffey, eds., p.131-149

2021

  • Barzola, M.G.*, Tibaldi, A.M., Otamendi, J.E., Cristofolini, E.A., Schwartz, J.J., Benito, M.P., and Armas, P., 2021, P-T-t Path Reconstruction in a Syn-Deformational Migmatization Event Along the North-Central Portion of the Sierra Comechingones, Cordoba, Argentina, Journal of South American Earth Sciences, v.112 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103534.

  • Blatchford, H.J.*, Klepeis, K.A., Schwartz, J.J., Jongens, R., Turnbull, R.E., Miranda, E.A., Coble, M.A., and Kylander-Clark, A.R.C. (2021). Interplay of Cretaceous transpressional deformation and continental arc magmatism in a long-lived crustal boundary, central Fiordland, New Zealand. Geosphere, v. 16, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02251.1.

  • Carty, K.*, Schwartz, J.J., Wiesenfeld, J., Klepeis, K.A., Stowell, H.H., Tulloch, A.J., and Barnes, C.G., 2021, The Generation of Arc Andesites and Dacites in the Lower Crust of a Cordilleran arc, Fiordland, New Zealand, Journal of Petrology, v. 62, 1-41, https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egab043.

  • LaMaskin, T.A., Rivas, J.A., Barbeau, D.L., Schwartz, J.J., Russell, J.A., Chapman, A., 2021, A crucial geologic test of exotic collision versus endemic re-accretion in the Klamath Mountains province, U.S.A., with implications for the assembly of western North America, Geological Society of America Bulletin.

  • Lilley, H. C.*, Scott, J. M., Schwartz, J. J., Turnbull, R. E., & Tulloch, A. J., 2021, Cretaceous tungsten-tin mineralization in the Tin Range, Stewart Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology & Geophysics. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/00288306.2020.1855216.

  • Medaris, L. Jr., Singer, B, Jicha, B, Malone, D., Schwartz, J.J., Stewart, E., Van Lankvelt, A., Williams, M., and Reiners, P., 2021, Early Mesoproterozoic evolution of midcontinental Laurentia: Defining the geon 14 Baraboo orogeny, Geoscience Frontiers, 12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2021.101174.

  • Miranda, E.A., 2021, The Leaky Pipeline Playbook. Inside Higher Education, 13 Aug. 2021, https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2021/08/13/actions-and-behaviors-thwart-advancement-women-and-people-color-academe-opinion#.YVh7BJnW7uU.linkOp-ed.

  • Ringwood, M.*, Schwartz, J.J., Turnbull, R.E., and Tulloch, A.J., 2021, Phanerozoic Record of mantle-dominated arc magmatic surges in the Zealandia Cordillera, Geology, 49 (10): 1230–1234, https://doi.org/10.1130/G48916.1

  • Schwartz, J.J., Andico, S., Turnbull, R., Klepeis, K.A., Tulloch, A.J., Kitajima, K., and Valley, J., 2021, Stable and Transient Isotopic Trends in the Crustal Evolution of Zealandia Cordillera, American Mineralogist, v. 106 (9), p. 1369–1387,doi.org/10.2138/am-2021-7626.

  • Su Q., H. Riegel, L. Gong, R. Heermance, and J. Nie (2021), Detailed Processes and Potential Mechanisms of Pliocene Salty Lake Evolution in the Western Qaidam Basin, Fronteirs in Earth Science, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.736901

  • Turnbull, R.E., Schwartz., J.J., Fiorentini, M.L., Jongens, R., Evans, N.J., Ludwig, T., McDonald, B.J., and Klepeis, K.A., 2021, A Hidden Rodinian Lithospheric Keel Beneath Zealandia, Earth’s Newly Recognized Continent, Geology, 49(8), p. 1009-1014, https://doi.org/10.1130/G48711.1

  • Allen, S., Marsaglia, K.M., Morgan, J., and *Franco, A., 2021, Origin and diagenetic priming of a potential slow-slip trigger zone in volcaniclastic deposits flanking a seamount on the subducting plate, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, v. 65, p. 179-200. DOI: 10.1080/00288306.2021.1975776

  • Delaney, C.M., *Couplin, S., *Lawrence, J.A., Marsaglia, K.M., & Savage, K.L., 2021, A Preliminary Petrologic and Provenance Analysis of Groundstone Artifacts from the Northern Channel Islands and Coastal Southern Alta California, California Archaeology, v. 13, p. 227-265.

  • Dobbs, S.C., Riggs, N.R., Marsaglia, K.M., González-León, C., Cecil, R., Smith, M.E, 2021, The Permian Monos Formation Stratigraphic and detrital zircon evidence for Permian Cordilleran arc development along the southwest margin of Laurentia northwest Sonora Mexico. Geosphere, v.7: p.520–537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02320.1

  • *Johnson, K., Marsaglia, K.M., Brandl, P.A., *Waldman, R., Hamada, M., and Ishizuka, O., 2021 Geosphere, Intraoceanic Arc Evolution Based on a ~1 km-Thick Reararc Succession of Distal Volcaniclastic Lobe Deposits. Geosphere v. 17, p. 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02321.1

  • Marden, M., Holt, K., Ryan, M., *Carrasco, J., Marsaglia, K.M., Kirby, M., and Palmer, A., 2021, Stratigraphy and vegetation signals from an upland, landslide-dammed, paleolake during the Last Glacial-Interglacial Transition, Waipaoa Sedimentary System, Hikurangi Margin, eastern North Island, New Zealand: New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, v. 65, p. 220-241. DOI: 10.1080/00288306.2021.1947327

  • *Tentori, D., Amorossi, A., Milli, S., and Marsaglia, K.M., 2021, Sediment dispersal pathways in the Po coastal plain since Last Glacial Maximum: provenance signals of autogenic, eustatic, and tectonic forcing: Basin Research, v. 33, p. 1407-1428

  • Teske, A., Lizarralde, D., Höfig, T.W., and the Expedition 385 Scientists (includes K. Marsaglia), 2021. Guaymas Basin Tectonics and Biosphere. Proceedings of the International Ocean Discovery Program385: College Station, TX (International Ocean Discovery Program). https://doi.org/10.14379/iodp.proc.385.2021

  • *WaldmanR.J., Marsaglia,, K.M., Hickey-Vargass, R., Arculus, R., Barth, A., Bogus , K., Ishizuka, O., *JohnsonK.E., Laxton, Li, H., McCarthy, A., Meffre, S., Savov, I., Gene Yogodinski, J., and Gurnis, M., 2021, Sedimentary Record of Nascent IBM Arc Development: Geological Society of America Bulletin. v. 133, no. 7/8, p. 1421–1440. https://doi.org/10.1130/B35612.1

2020

  • Blatchford, H.J.*, Klepeis, K.A., Schwartz, J.J., Jongens, R., Turnbull, R.E., Miranda, E.A., Coble, M.A., Kylander-Clark, A.R.C., 2020, Interplay of Cretaceous transpressional deformation and continental arc magmatism in a long-lived crustal boundary, central Fiordland, Geosphere, 16, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02251.1

  • Hauswirth, S.C., Bower, C., Fowler, C., Schultz, P.B., Hauswirth, A.D., Weigand, T., and Miller, C.T. (2020) Modeling Cross Model Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow in Porous Media, Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 235:103708.

  • Heermance, R.V., and Schwartz, J.J. (eds.), 2020, From the Islands to the Mountains: A 2020 View of Geologic Excursions in Southern California: Geological Society of America Field Guide 59, https://doi.org/10.1130/GLD059

  • McGinn, C.A.*, Miranda, and Hufford, L.J.*, 2020, The effects of quartz Dauphiné twinning on strain localization in a mid-crustal shear zone, Journal of Structural Geology, v. 134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2020.103980

  • Morone, C., Le Pera, E., Marsaglia, K.M., and DeRosa, R., 2020, Compositional and textural study of modern beach sands in the active volcanic area of Campania region (southern Italy). Sedimentary Geology, v. 396 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2019.105567

  • Nourse, J.A., Swanson, B.J., Lusk, A., Barth, N.C., Schwartz, J.J., and Vermillion, K.B., 2020, Recent advancements in geochronology, geologic mapping, and landslide characterization in basement rocks of the San Gabriel Mountains block, in Heermance, R.V., and Schwartz, J.J., eds., From the Islands to the Mountains: A 2020 View of Geologic Excursions in Southern California, Geological Society of America Field Guide 59, p. 21-93.

  • Villaseñor, T., Tentori, D.*, Marsaglia, K.M., and Pinto, L., 2020 (now online), The changing Patagonian landscape: Erosion and sediment transfer paths in northern Patagonia during the Middle and Late Pleistocene: Basin Research, p. 1-19 DOI: 10.1111/bre.12413

2019

  • Basset, C., Abou Najm, M., Ammar, A., Stewart, R., Hauswirth, S., and Saad, G. (2019). Physically Based Model for Extracting Dual-permeability Parameters Using Non-Newtonian Fluids., Vadose Zone Journal, 18:1, doi:10.2136/vzj2018.09.0172

  • Buritica, L.*, Schwartz, J., Klepeis, K., Miranda, E.A., Tulloch, A., Coble, M., and Kylander-Clark, A., (2019). Temporal and spatial variations in magmatism and transpression in a Cretaceous arc, Median Batholith, Fiordland, New Zealand. Lithosphere, v. 11(5), https://doi.org/10.113/L1073.1

  • Clague, D., Marsaglia, K., Cousens, B.L., and Paduan, J.B., 2019, Oligocene and Miocene volcanics in the sedimentary forearc of the outer California borderland: SEPM Special Publication 110: From the Mountains to the Abyss: The California Borderland as an Archive of Southern California Geologic Evolution, K.M. Marsaglia, J. Schwalbach, and R. Behl, eds., p. 22-42.

  • Doran, L.M.*, Marsaglia, K.M., and Browne, G.H., 2019, Reconnaissance composition of river sand from northern South Island, New Zealand: a modern analogue for southern Taranaki Basin: New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2019.1618881

  • Teske, A., Lizarralde, D., Höfig, T.W., and the Expedition 385 Scientists (incudes Marsaglia), 2020. Expedition 385 Preliminary Report: Guaymas Basin Tectonics and Biosphere. International Ocean Discovery Program. https://doi.org/​10.14379/​iodp.pr.385.2020

  • Hauswirth, S.C., Abou Najm, M., and Miller, C.T. (2019). Characterization of the Pore Structure of Porous Media Using Non-Newtonian Fluids, Water Resources Research, 55: 7182-7195

  • Manning, J.*, Carpenter, R., and Miranda, E.A., (2019). Ocean acidification reduces net calcification and wound regeneration in the tropical crustose coralline alga Porolithon onkodes.Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, v. 520: 151225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2019.151225

  • Marsaglia, K.M., Behl, R.J., and Schwalbach, J.R., 2019, Introduction: From the Mountains to the Abyss: The California Borderland as an Archive of Southern California Geologic Evolution: SEPM Special Publication 110: From the Mountains to the Abyss: The California Borderland as an Archive of Southern California Geologic Evolution, K.M. Marsaglia, J. Schwalbach, and R. Behl, eds., p. 1-4.

  • Marsaglia, K.M., Weeraratne, D., Rodriguez, B.*, Green, G., Shintaku, N., and Kohler, M., 2019, Tracing the Arguello Submarine Canyon System from shelf origins to an abyssal sink: SEPM Special Publication 110: From the Mountains to the Abyss: The California Borderland as an Archive of Southern California Geologic Evolution, K.M. Marsaglia, J. Schwalbach, and R. Behl, eds. p. 87-101.

  • Su, Q., Nie, J., Luo, Z., Li, M., Heermance, R., and Garzione, C., (2019). Detection of strong precession cycles from the late Pliocene sedimentary records of northeastern Tibetan Plateau: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GC008447

  • Van Grinsven, M.**, Marsaglia, K.M., and Romans, B.W., 2019, Sand provenance from source to sink in the Santa Monica Basin, California Borderlands: Significance of Calleguas Creek input: SEPM Special Publication 110: From the Mountains to the Abyss: The California Borderland as an Archive of Southern California Geologic Evolution, K.M. Marsaglia, J. Schwalbach, and R. Behl, eds., p. 102-116.

2018

  • Bender-Whitaker, C.*, Marsaglia, K., Jaeger, J., and Browne, G., 2018, Insights into sequence stratigraphy and sedimentary process within siliciclastic shelf systems using Holocene-Pleistocene sand provenance in the Canterbury Basin, New Zealand: Geological Society of America, Special Paper 540, Tectonics, Sedimentary Basins and Provenance: A Celebration of William R. Dickinson’s Career, edited by Ingersoll, R.V., Graham, S.A., and Lawton, T.F., p. 159-196.

  • Cecil, R., Ferrer, M.A.**, Riggs, N., Marsaglia, K., Kylander-Clark, A., Ducea, M., and Stone, P., 2018, Early arc development recorded in Permian-Triassic plutons of the northern Mojave Desert region, California: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 131, p. 749-765. https://doi.org/10.1130/B31963.1

  • Fleck, J.R.*, C.L. Rains*, D.S. Weeraratne, C.T. Nguyen, D.M. Brand*, S.M. Klein**, J.M. McGehee**, J.M. Rincon**, C. Martinez*, and P.L. Olson, Iron diapirs entrain silicates to the core and initiate thermochemical plumes, Nature Communications, 9:71, DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02503-2, 2018.

  • Heermance, R.V., J. Pearson, A. Moe, L. Langtao, X. Jianhong, C. Jie, F. Richter, C.N. Garzione, N. Junsheng, and S. Bogue, 2018, Erg deposition and development of the ancestral Taklimakan Desert (western China) between 12.2 and 7.0 Ma, Geology (IF=5.073), v. 46, no. 10, pp. 919-922.

  • Huntington, K.W. and Klepeis, K.A., with 66 community contributors including Miranda, E.A. (2018), Challenges and opportunities for research in tectonics: Understanding deformation and the processes that link Earth systems, from geologic time to human time. A community vision document submitted to the U.S. National Science Foundation. University of Washington, 84 pp., https://doi.org/10.6069/H52R3PQ5

  • Luo, Z., Q. Su, Z. Wang, R. V. Heermance, C.N. Garzione, M. Li, X. Ren, Y. Song, and J. Nie, 2018, Orbital forcing of Plio-Pleistocene climate variation in a Qaidam Basin lake based on paleomagnetic and evaporite mineralogic analysis, Palaeogeography, Paleoclimatology, Palaeoecology, doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.09.022

  • Marsaglia, K.M., Lawrence, J.*, Fitzpatrick, S., and Wake, T., 2018, New insights from petrographic analysis of ceramics from the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama.  Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, v. 17, p. 449-461.

  • Nolasco, J.M.*Marsaglia, K.M., Campbell, K.E., Hertel, F., Villaseñor, T., 2018, Use of Sedimentary petrology and provenance to resolve questions regarding the Neogene depositional setting of the southern rim of the Amazon Basin: Geological Society of America, Special Paper 540, Tectonics, Sedimentary Basins and Provenance: A Celebration of William R. Dickinson’s Career, edited by Ingersoll, R.V., Graham, S.A., and Lawton, T.F., p. 133-158.

  • Tentori, D.*, Milli, S., and Marsaglia, K.M., 2018, A source-to-sink compositional model of a present highstand: an example in the low-rank Tiber depositional sequence (Latium Tyrrhenian margin, Italy): Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 88, p. 1-22.

2017

  • Brandl, P.A., Hamada, M., Arculus, R.J., Johnson, K.*, Marsaglia, K.M., Ishizuka, O., and Savov, I., 2017, The arc arises: The links between volcanic output, arc evolution, and melt composition. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 461, p. 73-84. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2016.12.027.

  • Decker, M.*, Schwartz, J.J., Stowell, H.H., Klepeis, K.A., Tulloch, A., Kouki, K., Valley, J., and Kylander-Clark, 2017, Slab-Triggered Arc Flare-up in the Cretaceous Median Batholith and the Growth of Lower Arc Crust, Fiordland, New Zealand: Journal of Petrology, v.58, No. 6, p. 1145-1172; doi: 10.1093/petrology/egx049.

  • Heermance, R. V., and D. Yule (2017), Holocene slip rates along the San Andreas Fault System in the San Gorgonio Pass and implications for large earthquakes in southern California, Geophysical Research Letters, 44(11), 5391-5400.

  • Johnson, K.*, Waldman, R.**, and Marsaglia, K.M., 2017, Data Report: Sedimentary Columns with Facies and Bedding for Units II-IV at IODP Site U1438: Proceedings of the International Ocean Discovery Program, Expedition 351: Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc Origins: College Station, TX (International Ocean Discovery Program). http://publications.iodp.org/proceedings/351/201/351_201.html

  • Marsaglia, K.M., Browne, G.H., George, S.C., Kemp, D., Jaeger, J., Carson, D.*, Richaud, M., and IODP Expedition 317 Scientific Party, 2017, The transformation of sediment into rock: Insights from IODP Site U1352, Canterbury Basin, New Zealand: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 87, p. 272-287.

  • McKay, M.P., Bollen, M., Gray, K.D., Stowell, H.H., and Schwartz, J.J., 2017, Prolonged metamorphism during long-lived terrane accretion: Sm-Nd garnet and U-Pb zircon geochronology and P-T paths from the Salmon River suture zone, west-central Idaho: Lithosphere, doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/L642.1.

  • Morrone, C., DeRosa, R., Le Pera, E., and Marsaglia, K.M., 2017, Provenance of volcaniclastic beach sand in a magmatic arc setting: an example from Lipari island beaches (Aeolian Archipelago, Tyrrhenian Sea): Geological Magazine, v. 154, p. 804-828. doi: 10.1017/S001675681600042X

  • Paterson, S., Clausen, B., Memeti, V., and Schwartz, J.J., 2017, Arc magmatism, tectonism and tempos in Mesozoic arc crustal sections of the Peninsular and Transverse Ranges, Southern California, USA, in Kraatz, B., Lackey, J.S., and Fryxell, J.E., eds., Field Excursions in Southern California: Field Guides to the 2016 GSA Cordilleran Section Meeting: Geological Society of America Field Guide 45, p. 1–104, doi:10.1130/2017.0045(04).

  • Schwartz, J.J., Klepeis, K.A., Sadorski, J.F.*, Stowell, H.H., Tulloch,  A.J., and Coble, M., 2017, The Tempo of Continental Arc  Construction in the Mesozoic Median Batholith, Fiordland, New Zealand: Lithosphere (doi:10.1130/L610.1).

  • Stewart, C.* and Miranda, E.A. (2017), The rheological evolution of brittle-ductile transition rocks during the earthquake cycle: evidence for a ductile precursor to pseudotachylyte in an extensional fault system, South Mountains, Arizona. Journal of Geophysical Research, Solid Earth, v. 122, doi:10.1002/2017JB014680.

  • Stowell, H.H., Schwartz, J.J., Klepeis, K.A., Hout, C., Tulloch, A.J., and Koenig, A., 2017, Sm-Nd garnet ages for granulite and eclogite in the Breaksea Orthogneiss and widespread granulite facies metamorphism of the lower crust, Fiordland magmatic arc, New Zealand: Lithosphere; https://doi.org/10.1130/L662.1