Language--What is it, and who uses it?
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What is the difference between a symbol and a sign? If
you are driving outside and see the following what do you do?

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Probably stop. The sign is a call to action -- to stop!
It is also a communication that is necessary for your survival. Disregard it
and the results can be fatal!
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But if you see this instead:

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What do you do?
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Probably nothing. That is because it was NOT a
call-to-action. And it is certainly NOT necessary to your survival. And
incidentally, it is not a sign (in the Pavlovian sense).
Signs are a call to action and Symbols are a call for information
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It is simply a communication that brings to mind an
idea--about a man who is faster than a speeding bullet; more powerful than a
locomotive; and who loves to leap tall buildings in a single bound.
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He often wears a blue leotard with a pink cape and
boots; and he loves to change his clothes in telephone booths.
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He is employed by a newspaper company, and he has a
girl friend of questionable intelligence (she never recognizes him in his
leotard without his glasses.)
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All these threads of interrelated information, which we
will call a concept, were brought into your consciousness by the the signal
(the word) "Superman." That is what symbols in language do.
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They bring into our minds information (concepts) that
we can modify, enjoy, discard or use to plan our day. But typically, they are
not calls to action.
Humans are genetically programmed to symbolize.
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Unlike signs that are typically linked to things
(referents) by a relationship that is iconic or cause-and -effect, or based on
a simple Pavlovian...conditioning paradigm, symbols have a purely arbitrary
relationship to their referents.
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The word "Superman," for example, does not
sound, look or feel like the man.
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One might think that this would be a disadvantage for
symbols in comparison to signs as a media for communication. Signs should be
easier to learn.
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But this is where nature has stepped in to provide
humans with an awesome edge--the prodigious ability to create and recall great
numbers of arbitrary Concept/Symbol (Word) associations. This is the
"guts" of language.
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Just as it is no problem for a giraffe to reach
nutritious leaves high up in a tree, it is no problem for humans to learn
words.
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In fact many persons after having attended college have
acquired over 100,000 words in their lexicon!
Symbols substitute for images in the thought process.
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The arbitrary concept/symbol association, has one major
advantage for communication--boundless POWER!
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There is no limit on the concepts that can be
represented by symbols. Hence, there is nothing that cannot be communicated via
language!
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One final difference between signs and symbols is that
the signs relate to things, but symbols are substitutes for them in our thought
processes.
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Dark clouds for example mean that rain may be eminent
but we don*t substitute the image of dark clouds in our mind for rain.
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The word
"rain," however, is a substitute in our thought processes for the
real thing or image. In fact most of us as adults chose to think verbally (in
words) rather than in images.
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Other symbolic forms (which probably preceded language
in the course of human development) include rituals, music, dancing and art.
Symbols include Art, Dance, Music, Ritual and Language
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What, then, distinguishes the symbols of language from
those of art, music, dance and rituals?
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Four features in particular make language symbols
different (although, not necessarily better). These include:
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1. Language has a
lexicon (vocabulary) in which there is a one-to-one relationship between a
symbol (word) and its referent (a thing in the world). The word
"table" can be identified with an object.
o
2. The
Symbol/Referent bond in language is arbitrary.
o
3. It is possible in
language to have many symbols for the same object. Table (in English), Mesa (in
Spanish), Stol (in Russian {pardon the English script}) all mean the same
thing.
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4. The symbols of
language can be used to discuss language. This is referred to as meta-language.
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Symbols (as well as signs) can be classified into two
qualitatively different types: Discursive
and Presentational.
There are two kinds of Symbols: Presentational and Discursive
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Presentational Symbols are perceived as complete
units. Pictures and maps are some excellent examples.
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Examine some of the presentational patterns in the
notes below and consider which are signs and which are symbols.
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Discursive Symbols occur over a period of time.
Hence, it is not possible to perceive the whole unit except through the
cognitive process of short term memory.
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The notes below provide an example of a discursive
communication.
NOTES: An example of a discursive symbol
NOTES:
An interesting site on symbols
NOTES: Is this a sign or a symbol?
Language explained in terms of Learning Theory:
There are six different theories of what language is. They are not
necessarily exclusive but each underscores different aspects.
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1. Behavioral
Theories were among the earlier approaches attempting to define the
mechanisms of language development. Language was classified as a skill to be
learned.
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Hence, Learning Theory was the focus, and
classical conditioning was the central mechanism, featuring a stimulus-response
paradigm.
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Perhaps the most well known behavioral theory was an
off-shoot of this, Operant Conditioning
developed by B. F. Skinner.
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He emphasized the reinforcement of verbal behaviors to
shape random vocalizations into speech. Explanations were couched only in
observable and measurable terms.
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These included verbal actions (responses) co-occurring
with rewards (stimuli). The basic unit of language was considered to be the
"functional unit," and not words or sentences.
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The roles of mentalistic constructs, such as the notion
of an implicit (innate) knowledge of grammatical rules or an inborn intention
to communicate were minimized as non measurable and probably non-existent.
NOTES:
Here is an interesting site on Operant Conditioning
NOTES: Here is some
information on B. F. Skinner.
Language explained in terms of Biological Theories
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2. Biological Maturational Theories comprised
the other (natavistic) end of the nature /nurture continuum.
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While the role of experience (nurture) was acknowledged
as an essential element in the development of language, its importance was
minimized.
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Special brain structures were given major credit for
language ability. This included a consideration at both the macro and micro
levels of organization.
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At the macro level, a special role (in humans) for
language was recognized to exist typically in the left cerebral hemisphere.
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Also involved were parts of the frontal and temporal
lobes, the arcuate fasciculus, and some subcortical structures.
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At the micro level, special attention was focused on
brain cell organization, branching and spines on dendrites, myelinization of
axons, and axodendritic synapses.
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Because of its origin in structure, language was
considered to unfold according to a biological timetable--given just
"scraps" of language experiences.
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For some educators, however, the milestones of this
timetable are considered to be windows of opportunity to stimulate the child
with rich and appropriate models of language.
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Because of its exclusiveness in humans, lanlguage has
been dubbed by E. Lenneberg to be a "Species Specific" phenomenon.
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Lenneberg spent considerable time gathering evidence
world wide to support the Species Specific concept.
Language explained in terms of Linguistic Induction
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3. Linguistic Induction Theories of language
development in many ways carry the Species Specific perspective to the maximum.
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The best known proponent of Linguistic Induction is
Chomsky who postulated a Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
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This was a hypothesized neurological structure which is
genetically inherited by humans and which possesses a general knowledge about
language grammar--Universal Grammar.
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LAD enables the child to develop language with
inordinate speed, even in instances of minimal language stimulation.
NOTES:
Here is more than you probably want know about Language Acquisition Theories
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From the LAD develops a formal grammar with a finite
set of rules shared by all speakers of the language. Most of these rules were
acquired by 5 years of age.
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From the formal grammar an infinite number of sentences
can be generated.
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Proponents of the Linguistic Induction theory support
this view by noting the lack of an observable direct link between language
input and out put, or a relationship between teaching (corrections) and
performance.
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In addition, the similarity of patterns of grammatical
development between cultures suggests to them a major role for genetic factor.
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Children simply understand more about language than can
be accounted for by the sum of their limited language experiences.
NOTES: Who
is Chomsky, anyway?
Language explained in terms of Cognitive Theories
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4. Cognitive Theories of language development do
not subscribe to the notion that any knowledge of language is transmitted
genetically in humans.
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They do, however, hypothesize that important cognitive
nonlinguistic precursors to language are inherited.
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These include the ability to develop many sophisticated
concepts about the world.
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Language emerges as a result of cognitive construction
in which speech, one of many developing cognitive skills, and concepts are
combined.
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Language is, however,
only one of several symbolizing skills, to represent and/or manipulate mental
concepts about the world.
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The best known
Cognitive Theorist is Piaget,
who describes how the cognitive capacities of children are qualitatively and
quantitatively different from adults. These include the ability to develop many
sophisticated concepts about the world.
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His intensive observations of children lead him to describe
their intellectual growth through a series of set cognitive stages by a process
of maturation called adaption.
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In adaption, environmental influences cause disruptions
in body equilibrium, and there is a natural inclination to reestablish it. Two
processes are involved:
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1. How children
perceive the environment (process input) is a function of their existing
schemas (concepts). This is called assimilation.
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2. When these
perceptions do not fit reality or solve problems, schemas are changed and/or combined (accommodation) to correct the situation. The child then
perceives the world differently through the new neural organization
(assimilation).
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The concept of adaption is analogous to climbing a ladder. There is a different view from each
rung (assimilation), and a
process of change as we climb to
the next rung (accommodation).
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Implicit in the cognitive theories are the importance
of experience and problem solving on the cognitive and language development of
the child.
NOTES:
Here is some background on Jean Piaget.
NOTES: If that wasnt enough, here
is more information on Jean Piaget.
Language explained in terms of Social Interaction Theories
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5. Social Interaction is the new theory on the
block. Unimportant in this perspective are the abstract processes of linguistic
rules or cognitive structures.
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Equally minimized is the role of concrete verbal
behaviors and strict reinforcement principles.
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What is stressed is an innate motivation to interact
socially and to develop a concept of self and others.
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What is important (as Dore noted in 1986) are pragmatic
considertions:
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1. intentional and
symbolic acts of speech,
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2. their
conversational functions,
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3. their consequences
for participants and,
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4. their context
dependent properties.
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Language develops in the process of dyadic, dynamic
interactions involving the child, and facilitated by an innate motivation to develop
self concept and to socially interact.
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Important here obviously is the need for quality time
for children with their parents (caretakers).
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Parents contribute greatly to language development by
modifying their speech output to be more compatible with the child's developing
linguistic and cognitive abilities (motherese).
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They also take steps to provide a scaffold to
facilitate communication.
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A scaffold is a consistent pattern of environmental
cues, (such as a bedtime routine) in which familiar phrases are used.
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This helps children, who have limited communication
skills to decode and encode messages.
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NOTES:
I think a little more on how to speak Motherese might be helpful.
Language explained in terms of Information Processing Theories
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6. Information Processing Theories in many
respects reflect the technological thinking of the times.
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Before the industrial revolution, the mind was
described in terms of body vapors. After the revolution it was envisioned to be
constructed like a well oiled machine.
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Today, we use computer concepts to explain the brain
and language acquisition.
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While there are enough similarities to make this
useful, it is still far too simplistic a description.
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Like a computer, the brain encodes stimuli from the
environment, operates on the information, stores and retrieves the data.
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In the brain, unlike computers which are serial
processors, information processing occurs along parallel tracks.
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Language develops empirically through experience.
Initially, all neural tracks are potentially equal. But through use, or lack of
it, some are strengthened and others are weakened or or totally lost.
Which is the correct theory?
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Language forms are
learned as a result of practical usage, such as occur in social interactions
such as requesting, stating, or locating things, etc.
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Forms that are used
more frequently and consistently develop first in a child*s language. So what
does it all mean?
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What it all boils
down to is that there is validity to all these theories. They all provide bits
and pieces to the complicated puzzle of language. They all provide hints as to
what variables could be manipulated to facilitate language development, and
when and how they should be manipulated.
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Hence we shall examine the processes that form this
communication bridge, and consider each process in the light of what we know of
the theories of language development.