_THE MILESTONES OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE._
*
Almost every baby book and text on language development has a
discussion on the milestones of speech and language development.
*
And well they should, for these milestones are a road map to the
awesome processes of maturation and learning that occur in those
early formative years of life.
*
These milestones, furthermore, provide information about the
normalcy of a child's development--an issue every parent and
educator is concerned with. And perhaps most importantly, they
expose windows of opportunity that offer chances for parents and
educators to optimize the development of language and cognition
for each child.
*
Although the following discussion is about these milestones, I
have included in the Notes below an additional interesting Web
site which elaborates on these milestones.
NOTES: Here is more than you may really want to know about
Milestones.
_Einstein was no elephant_
*
If brain size alone were the hallmark of intelligence, elephants
would be the Einsteins of the world. The notable Russian
neuroscientest, Luria, hypothesized that it is not so much the
size but the way the brain of the human is organized that gives
us (humans) the language edge.
So you are Mr. Organization! What are you doing for Society?
*
Luria suggested that at birth, all the modalities of the baby's
brain are functioning, as they are for most baby mammals. But
these modalities are functioning as individual unconnected
units. We have stressed the need for all these modalities to be
stimulated, in order to maximize the development of the neural
infra-structure for auditory, visual and haptic processing.
_The mammal brain re-organizes it's function at three months into
paired modalities_
*
According to Luria, at three months after birth, in the human
brain there is a re-organization of function. Now the modalities
establish communication between themselves, and begin to work in
pairs.
*
We see here a change in the behavior of the child. Eye-hand
motor coordination is a notable sequel of this advanced
neuro-wiring. That is not to say that this advantage is lacking
in most other mammals. Good eye-hoof (horses & deer), eye-paw
(dogs & cats) eye-hand (monkeys & apes) and eye-trunk (elephants
and porters) coordination is essential for survival.
*
We have already discussed how initially, the proximal modalities
almost exclusively will be used by the child to explore his/her
environment.
*
The cross modality associations between this haptic input and
the simultaneous input of the distal modalities is critical if
hearing and vision are to become optimally functional.
_The human brain re-organizes itself again at 12 months into a single
unit_
*
Around one year for humans only (and earlier maybe for some
chimps and gorillas), the human brain achieves yet a higher
level of re-organization, and is now capable of functioning as a
single unit.
*
It is at this point, Luria hypothesized, that symbolic behavior
becomes possible. It is about this time also that children begin
to use symbols to talk, albeit in one word sentences. The
language bridge has begun to take shape.
*
In discussing the milestones of speech, books often relate these
behaviors to those of general motor development. This is not to
suggest, necessarily, that speech development is dependent upon
motor development. Rather they are intended to serve as useful
measures to obtain perspective.
*
For example, both speech and language have a maturational
timetable for development. If one or the other alone lags,
different etiologies are suggested. If both are slow in
developing, yet a third range of possibilities becomes suspect.
_0 to 1 minute--well, for crying out loud_
NOTES: This is where it all begins. Good bye the quiet life
- Say Hello to CHANGE, CHALLANGE and the CHANCE OF A
LIFETIME to learn what life is all about!
*
We will look, then, at both speech and at some of the major
motor developments in those early years.
*
The first aural communication a human typically makes in life is
the fabled Birth Cry. Crying seems to be a simple act, but in
reality it is a very complex one, requiring a high degree of
body, and hence, neurological coordination.
*
All of the muscles of respiration must be synchronized together,
and also with those muscles controlling the larynx and the oral
cavity.
*
Hence, while the birth cry might be interpreted by the casual
on-looker (typically Dad) as meaning, "That was no fun!" But to
a doctor or a researcher, it has a more profound message.
*
It speaks to the neurological health or integrity of the baby.
For example the syndrome "Cri du Chat," can be often diagnosed
at birth on the basis of the baby's crying pattern.
*
Here, in the notes, is a support group for such children.
NOTES: Here is more information on Cri du Chat.
NOTES: Here is even more information on Cri du Chat.
NOTES: HEAR THE ACTUAL CRY OF A BABY WITH Cri du Chat. <
http://www.csun.edu/~vcoao0el/webct/de361s141_folder/CriDuChat.mp4>
_1 minute to 2 months--How do you spell Major Nuisance?
U-n-d-i-f-f-e-r-e-n-t-i-a-t-e-d c-r-y-i-n-g. _
*
The crying that follows during those days (nights) right after
birth has been called by some a nuisance, and by others,
un-differentiated crying. The latter is basically because the
cry lacks variety. That is not surprising considering there is a
paucity of neural connections, and taking into account that the
infant's oral tract is too small and the tongue is too large for
effective modulation.
*
In the Notes below, are some auditory samples of
"Undifferentiated Crying."
*
How do you spell inconvenience: b-a-b-y ? Often the issue for
new parents is how to respond to the baby's crying, especially
in the wee hours of the morning.
*
There are those who say that we must teach the baby early to
mold to the adults timetable if we don't wish to be greatly
inconvenienced by the baby's crying in the middle of the night.
NOTES: Here is an interesting sample of baby's crying at
2:30 in the morning before a big exam.
NOTES: Here is some interesting discussion on babies crying.
It is not always for fun.
_How do you spell opportunity: I-n-c-o-n-v-e-n-i-e-n-c-e ?_
*
This means gritting our teeth and ignoring the ever undulating
cacophony until it subsides. The reality, of course, is that if
we don't want to be inconvenienced, we shouldn't have a baby.
*
Once we undertake that commitment, inconvenience is the name of
the game and the more we are inconvenienced and meet the
challenge, the greater that baby's chances for fulfillment will be.
*
Let's examine what we should do when the baby cries at 12 a.m.,
and again at 3 a.m.
*
Vygotsky called the baby's cry a social act of communication.
Here in lies a concept of some importance.
*
If we respond quickly to the baby's crying, we are teaching the
baby that the vocal mechanism is an excellent tool for
communication.
*
This engenders an underlying positive attitude about oral
communication. In addition it provides additional opportunities
for the parents to stimulate the child with touch, voice and
visual patterns ( e.g. the face).
_Cast your crumbs upon the water and what do you get--soggy crumbs! _
*
Stimulation, as we have discussed, is a major player in brain
cell growth and the development of the neural infra-structure.
For the infant, who is in the growth "fast-lane", the parents
can be contributors to that growth each minute they spend with
the child, day or night!
*
What happens if we don't answer the call? First of all, we need
to recognize that a baby's metabolism is not the same as ours.
So that the baby's body rhythm is different than that of an
adult. Hence, they need to have their schedule of feeding
prevail and not the adults'. When the baby cries and are
ignored, their needs go unmet. (These are the crumbs, I was
referring to.)
*
The oral mechanism to them appears to have little value as a
means of communication.
*
In addition, what neural sub-systems are being stimulated here,
so that they will be the ones to develop more fully?
_2 months to 3 months--How do you spell baby-communication:
D-i-f-f-e-r-e-n-t-i-a-t-e-d C-r-y-i-n-g. _
*
When the baby cries, the neurons being exercised and stimulated
to grow are the ones in the circuits that generate the feelings
of anxiety, anger, frustration, and hopelessness.
*
These systems will develop more readily and, because they are
well developed, are more available to become the child's
reaction of choice to the problems they encounter throughout
life. (These are the soggy crumbs that can come back to haunt us.)
*
Around the second and third months, the parents will have
happily noticed that the baby's crying has taken on some nuances
in the form of an increased number of consonant and vowel type
sounds, and voice pitch changes and rhythm. This is called,
_Differentiated Crying_.
*
The sounds that the baby is making are reflexive and do not
represent any particular language--only sounds that a human can
make. This variety leads some mothers, however, to feel that
they can interpret their baby's cries.
* In the following experiment, 3 babies were exposed to an audio
of Dr. Hall's CD 361 Lecture. See if you can interpret what they
are communicating...
NOTES: An example of Differentiated Crying.
NOTES: Had enough yet? Here is another examples
of Differentiated Crying.
* As a control in the preceding experiment, this baby was exposed
to a visual image of Dr. Hall presenting a lecture.
NOTES: No Physical harm was evidenced on any of the above
subjects who received psychoanalytic counseling practically
free of charge.
_3 to 6 months--out of the mouths of babes comes BABBLING. _
NOTES: Babbling is a serious business for Humans.
NOTES: I never met a baby who didn't babble. Come to think
of it I could say the same thing for professors.
#
Research suggests to the contrary, noting that when the crying is
taken out of context, the mothers are unable to decode it's meaning.
But then again, communication in context is what pragmatics is all
about.
*
So that maybe there still may be something to be said for the
communication effectiveness of Differentiated Crying. This may
be an interesting area for further research.
*
Nonetheless, everyone does agree that the level of agitation of
the baby's message can be interpreted by the pattern of the crying.
*
Of course, all the points we have raised for responding promptly
to the baby's undifferentiated crying still hold for this stage
of communication too.
*
_Now about BABBLING_...When professors do it, it is called "time
for retirement," but when the 3 month old baby babbles, it is a
sign of human genetic inheritance, and a forerunner of oral
communication.
_Babbling is a genetic inheritance for the human species only--no
primates allowed._
*
Babbling occurs after that time when, as Luria suggests, the
brain has gone through its re-organization. Modalities now work
in consort, two at a time.
*
Hence, the noises that the baby makes are now correlated with
the vocal movements that are producing them, and the baby revels
in this awareness.
*
This particular aural circuit, however, is unique only to
humans. Other primates do not engage in this activity. Nor do
other primates develop speech.
*
All during this period, the production of sounds increases in
frequency and variety in terms of consonants (from back to
front) and vowels (from front to back).
*
The sounds, however, are still relatively reflexive or by chance
and do not reflect any language background. The initial babbling
is personal and occurs usually when the child is alone, usually
before or after a nap. There is lot of cooing and chuckles.
_So what is the child doing motorically at 3 to 6 months during
the period of Babbling?_
*
This quickly gives way to a modified consonant-vowel kind of
cooing interspersed with nasal and nasal and labial fricatives.
*
Later it begins to carry some social significance and is used as
a tool for gaining attention--a very positive sign for the
development of aural communication. There will be identifiable
combinations as well as one syllable utterances.
*
At the start of the babbling period, most notable motor behavior
is the ability of the baby to hold his/her head up from a prone
position (lying on his stomach). My feeling is that if you have
been letting the baby roll and play a lot on the floor that
he/she will gain this ability a little earlier.
*
It's a desirable skill so that the baby can focus on more objects.
*
By half way through the babbling period, the baby should be able
to sit with support; and by the end of the period, sit without
support.
_6 to 8 months (and sometimes earlier)--Babies are not just LALLING
around, but are also using the JARGON of their language._
NOTES: Talking jargon to the fairies, or maybeto future
graduate students.
*
Actually, I like to talk about /Lalling/ first, and then
/Jargon/ to clarify the difference between the two.
*
_Lalling_ is a term favored in old-time language texts but not
used so much now. I like the term, however, partly because I am
an old-time professor, and partly because it underscores a
particular oral growth feature--articulation control.
o
During the babbling period, the sound combinations that the
baby made were reflexive or random. Now, the baby can make a
sound voluntarily, at his discretion. It's a sure sign that
vocal motor patterns are beginning to be developed and
stored in the "Mixer."
o
Baby can say, "ba" when he wants to or "da" or "bada" and do
it again, "bada bada bada bada bada bada bada," and again
and again.
o
The range of consonants produced voluntarily, in terms of
type and frequency, will at first be limited. Quickly new
vowels and consonants will appear, and will increase in
frequency.
_Consonants appear from front to back and vowels from back to
front--and all this in just on semester!_
o
Typically, the front consonants will be used first. The
range of vowels will also be restricted, with the back
vowels appearing first.
o
This could easily account, at least in part, for the fact
that the names of close family members in many languages are
words that start with front consonants and back vowel, as in
"mama" and "papa" or even "dada."
o
Perhaps the most striking thing of all is the fact that the
sounds the baby is making are now recognizable as being the
sounds of the baby's language environment.
o
In just 6 short months, this speck of humanity, who has
spent much of his/her time peeing and pooing, crying and
cooing, has found time to secretly extract from the
surrounding stream of vocal sounds, many of the allophones
of the language!
o
That's more than I accomplished in a year of Russian in
college, with the exception of the pooing and peeing.
o
Why should babies even notice speech sounds at all? Chomsky
suggests this focus is a function of the _Language
Acquisition Device (LAD)_ that humans alone possess.
Certainly the human brain has a neurological readiness to
process these kinds of sounds.
o
What does this mean to me? It means that from day one, I
will be talking to my baby a lot, even, if people think I've
gone "nuts." Babies may appear to not be listening, but they
are!
o
_Jargon_ adds another surprising element to the baby's vocal
ability. Many parents have heard their babies, when they are
alone after a nap, talking to the "fairies." From the other
room it sounds as if the baby is having a conversation with
someone.
_Someone is talking to the fairies._
*
What the baby is doing is lalling, with the added quality of
_Prosody_. Now if this were a lower division course, we would
have called it the Melody of the language, but that's progress.
_Look Dear, they're not playing our song! _
*
That is what prosody is, a melody and all languages have their
own particular song.
*
I'm reminded of the one time I left the USA, to visit Japan. I
stood on the Ginza in a state of intense culture shock, as
people dressed in strange clothes drove on the wrong side of the
street, ate pink and white oddly shaped foods and read signs
from up to down instead of left to right.
*
To regain my composure, I did what any true American would
do...I went to see a John Wayne movie (dubbed, I later learned,
in Japanese). Not understanding the currency, I believe I paid
$30 for the movie, but that is another story. The real surprise
came when John Wayne, in boots and chattels, came out and hissed
in chopped syllables, "Oh hai yo go zaee masu." I was totally
destroyed.
*
No more, I am sure, than a citizen from Japan would be at
hearing Toshiro Mifune (my favorite Japanese actor) speak
(dubbed) in a drawling American tone.
*
We have learned to expect a specific melody or prosody from a
speaker of a specific language.
NOTES: This may be more than you want to know about Prosody.
NOTES: He is eight years old but he is a whiz at Prosody.
NOTES: He would argue that Computer Speech lacks Prosody.
_Prosody is not just a tune--it is a percussion_
*
This feature of prosody is one of the hardest things to acquire
in a new language. Yet the baby is demonstrating a knowledge of
it as early as six months!
*
Prosody is made up of a number of elements that include/rhythm,
inflection, stress/ and /juncture/.
*
_The rhythm_ of a language involves the combinations of vowels
and consonants and the treatment of the vowels. It creates a
cadence that we come to expect of a language. It is what poems
are made of, and poems are a good way for foreign students to
practice the rhythm of the new language.
o
This rhythm is very important for effective listening as far
as speech is concerned, because it helps to break the stream
of sounds into their proper units.
o
When we impose the wrong rhythm on a language, we are
segmenting the stream of speech incorrectly and it becomes
much more difficult to decode. Notice, that when foreign
speakers speak English using their native rhythm, English
becomes very difficult to understand.
_Look Dear, they're playing someone else's song!_
*
While I was working at the Airport in Hawaii years ago, I
decided to learn Japanese, so that I could welcome visitors off
the plane from Japan in their native language.
*
After struggling for one semester at the University in Japanese
100, I finally opened the door to a plane arriving from Japan,
and drawled "Oh-oou Haii-yoou go-ou zaiiii maaas."
*
The Japanese passenger, first off the plane, politely apologized
to me, in halting English, saying that he didn't really
understand English. He didn't even recognize my drawling
Japanese as being Japanese! It was back to the -drawling...
board for me.
*
The child is actually working on this difficult problem of
prosody (rhythm) from the day he/she is born. Studies have shown
that /when a language is being spoken around an infant, that
infant will be moving in unison with the rhythm of the
language/--kind of like dancing.
*
From personal experience, I know that once I have danced to
music, it becomes more meaningful. Of course, my wife say's that
once I have danced to music, it becomes agonizing, but she only
said that in an emotional state after her foot surgery.
_May I have this dance? May you have this dance!_
*
Not only is the baby busy teasing out the phonemes of the
language but also the elusive/rhythm/.
*
What this all means, again, is that there is a good reason to
talk to the infant a lot. Not only is he/she busy teasing out
the phonemes of the language but also the elusive rhythm.
*
Understanding the rhythm will set the stage for improved
recognition of syllables and words later on down the line.
_Inflection_ is another element of Prosody. When people speak, their
voices typically /raise/ and /lower/ in _pitch_. For example, if one
reads the two underlined headings above ("May I have this dance?" and
"May you have this dance!"), the first will probably end in a rising
pitch, while the second will probably fall.
*
A monotone voice is unnatural and reminds us of computer
generated speech, or of speech made via an artificial larynx.
This is typical also in Parkinson's disease where control of the
vocal folds is weakened.
*
_Learning Prosody can be stressful_. _Stress_ is a third
component of Prosody.
*
Besides changes in pitch (inflection), we tend to hit certain
syllables and words in sentence with more intensity than others.
*
For example in the three syllable word, "banana," which syllable
is stressed? It has to be the second (baNAna) or the word is
almost unrecognizable.
_Juncture_ is the fourth element of Prosody. This refers to a short,
almost imperceptible pause between words in a sentence. If you think
of a "white house" and then say the words, you will put a slight pause
between the words. But if you remember that the President lives in the
"White House," and say those words, you may note that that pause is
missing.
Prosody includes /Junk-sure/ to be missed by a non native speaker.
*
These minute pauses would probably be missed by non native
speaker of English, yet for the adult, as you can see from the
examples above, they can actually change the meaning of a sentence.
NOTES:
Now here is a GREAT example of Jargon between two babies!!! Notice
the unmistakable English /d/ consonants, the voice inflections,
the rhythm and the pauses and even the appropriate accompaning
hand movements. These two are as good as any two University
Professors at Jargon. It does not get better than this!
*NOTES: Here is a GREAT example of Jargon between two babies!!!.*
**
_We are not talking /Supra-calafragilistic-espialadocious/ here._
*
What we are talking about here are...
/"Supra-segmental-Phonemes"/.
...This is what /prosody/ ultimately develops into; and the ability
to understand supra-segmental-phonemes is absolutely necessary if a
person is to be an effective native speaker of a language.
*
We all remember that the phoneme is the smallest unit of a
language that can change meaning. "My wife bit me," versus "My
wife beat me," illustrates this point. There is a significant
change in meaning brought by changing the phoneme "i" to "ea."
But prosody, superimposed over a string of words in the sentence
can also change the meaning of the sentence in subtle but
important ways. We saw above how changing the inflection on the
end of a sentence changes it from a question to, perhaps, an
exclamation of horror (illustrated below--keeping in mind, of
course, that this is a class II University).
_Asking a person to dance can create all kinds of Stress_
#
_Stress:_ Changing the _stress pattern_ brings different contexts
into the meaning of a sentence. For example:
o
/"MAY you have this dance!/" suggests to me that the process
of asking permission is a major prerequisite here.
o
"/May YOU have this dance!/" suggests to me that the person
was expecting (hoping) any one else than me to ask.
o
"/May you HAVE this dance!/" just sounds a little strange
(unnatural) to me since there is nothing else I could do
with a dance (other than what my wife says to do, and I
can't repeat that).
o
"/May you have THIS dance!/" suggests to me that almost any
other time would have been better to ask.
o
"/May you have this DANCE!/" suggests to me perhaps that I
mis-read the situation and they were really practicing judo.
(Ironically, this is how my wife describes my behavior on a
dance floor).
_We are not talking supra-segmental-phonemes at this age, however,
only their /precursor, Jargon; / _ so what is the child doing
motorically at 6 to 8 months--during the period of Lalling and Jargon?
o
This is not to imply that the 6 month old baby is using
supra-segmental phonemes here.
o
Instead what we are underscoring is the fact that the basic
rudiments of prosody for the language have been recognized,
and are being practiced by the baby.
o
Later these well rehearsed patterns will be available for
the more complicated supra-segmental phonemic function to
occur.
o
_In terms of motor development_, babies at this point are
actually /able to stand by holding on to something/.
o
When they grab an object, they will hold their /thumb in
opposition to the fingers/.
_8 to 12 months--It sounds like speech but it's really ECHOLALIA to me._
NOTES: This is Echolalia. <
http://www.csun.edu/~vcoao0el/webct/de361s141_folder/Topic
10 Echolalia Baby's First Words I Love You!.mp4>
NOTES: This is an R rated example for male students only.
#
You may say to the baby of 8 months, "Daddy's coming!" and the baby
may reply, "Daddy's coming!" It sounds great but in most instances
it is just a fancy bit of jargon in which the child has put the
phonemes in the "proper" order.
*
It is a sign of some good eidetic imagery and a well developed
mixer, but there is no semantic content involved. The child has
no concept of meaning of the words "daddy" or "coming" let alone
the significance of the two word combination. Although it is a
step above jargon, it is not yet speech and language.
*
This occurs a lot with older nonverbal children who are
progressing through the milestones of speech at a much slower pace.
*
They will often fool us (not purposely, of course) into thinking
they have reached that symbolic milestone when they in fact
haven't quite made it yet.
_So what is the child doing motorically at 8 to 12 months during
the period of Echolalia?_
*
_Motorically_, when it comes to /creeping/, the baby is the
/expert/.
*
And when they pull themselves up to a standing position, still
using objects as support, they will begin to explore /making
little side steps while still hanging on./
_ONE YEAR--a time to be one!_ .
*
Luria hypothesized that the human brain achieves a level of
organization, at around /one/ year, that no other mammal is able
to reach. That is the unification of the brain into one single
functioning unit. It is at this point that symbolic
communication becomes possible
#
And it is at this point that the child speaks one word. (While all
this may be true, the one year old child has accrued a receptive
vocabulary of around 50 words.)
_1 year to 1 1/2 years--Identification Language_
*
Actually, the receptive vocabulary of the one year old child
will probably be much larger than 50 words, if you have been
reading to him/her every day, and talking to the child a lot.
*
It is a thrill at 10 and 11 months to tell the "speechless
little speck of humanity" we call our baby to get daddy's shoe
and have him/her actually do it.
*
This first word that the child utters may not be a perfect
pronunciation. It may be, for example, "dada" for "father" or
"baba" for "bottle." But the consistency with which he/she uses
the word in the presence of the object (referent) leaves no
doubt as to its meaning.
*
Sometimes the word is a composite, like "bye-bye-now." Although
to the adult, it may seem like two words, to the child it is all
one. If this were a 400 level course, we would call this a
/progressive phonological idiom/.
NOTES: The Baby we just saw previously who said "I love
you," would be a good example of a Progressive Phonological
Idiom.
*
The vocabulary will grow slowly from this point on.
NOTES: Here are more milestones.
NOTES: And if you didn't have enough milestones already,
here's another one. Note the larger receptive vocabulary.
*
For the next six months (1 to 1 /1/2 years), the words will be
used after their referent appears. Daddy may come into the room
and baby says "dada." A bottle is shown to the baby and the baby
say, "baba." This is called /Identification Language/. The
second six months will bring a subtle but significant change.
_So what is the child doing motorically at 1 year to 1 1/2 years
during the period of Identification Language?_
*
_Motorically_, like the wild boy of Avyron, the baby is/running
an all fours with great efficiency/.
*
He/she can stand alone now and may even take that /first ONE
step alone/. Outside of that he/she will /walk haltingly when
held by the hand./
_1 1/2 years to 2 years--Anticipatory Language, and the Holophrastic
sentence._
*
A subtle change that takes place by in the second six months (1
1/2 to 2 years) is the generation of the word before the
stimulus appears.
*
This is called Anticipatory Language and it takes speech out of
the realm of the old stimulus-response paradigm. Now speech
gives the baby some control over his/her environment.
*
For example, the baby says, "dada" and daddy appears. She says
"baba," and someone gives her a bottle. This was the level of
language that Itard longed to achieve for Victor the wild child.
Unfortunately with the exception of perhaps only one instance in
the visual modality, this goal was not achieved. On at least one
occasion, Victor did spell out the work "milk," when he was thirsty.
*
The Holophrastic Sentence. The words that the child is
generating during this period are more than simple
referent-symbol relationships.
*
If one notes the context in which the words are uttered, it will
become apparent that the same word may be conveying different
messages at different times.
*
"Baba" on one occasion may mean, "/Bring me a bottle/." On
another occasion, it may mean, "/That is my bottle/." And still
on another it may mean, "/That is mine--don't touch./" It might
even mean, "/That is white like my bottle./"
*
These are in essence, /one word/ or /Holophrastic sentences/.
They have within them in the deep structure, the /implicit/
beginning of /grammatical functions/ including, for example,
verb categories, nouns and the possessive case.
_So, what is the child doing motorically at 1 1/2 years to 2 year,
during the period of Anticipatory Language?_
*
_Motorically_, the child is now /walking/, albeit with a
somewhat /stiff gait/. He/she is beginning to /build towers two
blocks/ high, and shows some /preference for one hand or the other/.
*NOTES: Here is a GREAT example a two year old actually doing better
than a stiff gait or a stiff professor.*
_TWO to 2 1/2 YEARS--SYNTACTIC SPEECH--50 small words for baby and a
big bang for language development!_
*
At one year the child communicated symbolically for the first
time. But language is more than just symbols and referents.
*
What gives language its big edge, as a means of communication,
is the convention of putting single words into strings to
express ideas! This is part of what the text refers to
as_Duality of Patterning._
Here is an almost two year old just getting the two word
ideaÄ.
And then just a few months olderÄ.
*
We could try to create a symbol for every thought we would like
to communicate, but very soon we would find our lexicon to be
unmanageable and still growing. But by combining words to
express new ideas, all of a sudden, a limited vocabulary can go
a very long way!
*
So this is that time (2 years) when the child exhibits a
subconscious knowledge of the concept (part of what is called
language competency) and puts /two words together to express and
idea!/ _But not until they have accumulated an expressive
vocabulary of at least 50 words_.
_Language and the Big Bang Theory--duality of patterning._
The illustration below is a little obtuse, even for a Class II
University, so I better give a small explanation. It is supposed
to show how the process of changing the sequence of words or
symbols, changes the meaning.
*
C ME 2 ? ( or phonetically, "See me too?"
*
E MC 2 ! (or phonetically, Energy, equals mass times a constant
squared.)
(It's not the most scientific kind of illustration but then, as I may
have mentioned, we are only a Class II University so we can get away
with that kind of stuff.)
_Separating the babies from the gorillas. _
*
Surprisingly, humans are not the only species that put symbols
together to express ideas. At least one Gorilla (Koko) and some
chimpanzees will do this, up to three visual symbols, (and maybe
four, except that the fourth is usually a repetition of one of
the other symgols in the sentence.
*
But there is one significant difference--sentence form, or as we
discussed it, /morphology/ and /syntax/, is /missing!/ It is
true, that if the Gorilla is responding to your question, they
will copy to a degree your /word order./ But, when they generate
a "sentence," the words may come in any order without any bound
morphemes.
*
Surprisingly, again, human babies are tuned into word order
before they ever utter a holophrastic sentence.
*
The reaction of babies, a little under one year old, to words
presented in order versus words out of order was found to be
significantly different. It is interesting, also, that there are
no languages, present or past, in the history of humanity that
lack a sophisticated grammar.
_The search for Baby Grammar_
*
If you think English grammar is hard, get a load of Aborigine
grammar.
*
One major benefit of grammar, as we described it, is in the
redundancy it provides for decoding or going from surface
structure to deep structure.
*
The search for the "Holy Grail" to the developmental
psycholinguist was to find and define a "baby grammar." In one
description there were identified two classes of words, ...Pivot
and Open." Pivot words were those used frequently by the child
and these were small in number. Open words included all the rest
of the child's lexicon. The big restriction (grammar) was that
Open words were never combined in the same sentence.
*
This of, course would have been an /explicit/ example of
grammar. Unfortunately, although this was described in one
study, it was not reduplicated in others. Apparently, the Holy
Grail is yet to be found.
_/"All the world's a stage, and Morphemes and Semantic features
are the players"/( W. Shakespeare)_
*
(Ok, Shakespeare did not say exactly that about the world stage,
but what can you expect from a (your) professor who majored in
Tropical Agriculture).
*
With children having an apparently innate ability to tune in to
the structure of the language being spoken, semantic features in
combination with morphemes seem to set the stage for the
development of grammar.
*
In every child's environment, there are /actors/ (parents),
/actions/ and /objects/ etc. are the /semantic features/ or
elements that are related to the baby's needs. They are ordered
through the structure and/or morphology of the language. The
child is tuned in, at least initially, to that structure.
*
In English at the two morpheme stage, the child uses any two of
the semantic features. Hence, you might hear in Stage I of Roger
Browns Developmental Chart, the following two word...
*
"Daddy (actor) Ball (object)," or,
*
"Daddy (actor) throw (action);" or
*
"Throw (action) ball (object)." All of which may mean, "/Daddy
throw the Ball./"
*
The human brain seems genetically predisposed to search out
these noun phrase-verb phrase rules for ordering of these
semantic features in a two word sentence.
*
From here, the development path leads to three and four word
more complex sentences as described by Brown. This is our
inheritance and a prerequisite to language development.
"_So what is the child doing motorically at 2 to 2 1/2 years,
during the stage of Syntactic Speech? _
*
_Motorically_, babies can /walk/ now /with ease/, and even
/run/; and can manage going up and down the /stairs/, putting
/both feet on each step at a time/.
_TWO and 1/2 to 3 YEARS:COMMUNICATIVE INTENT--and a 1000 new bucks for
your bang!_
*
A new window of opportunity opens during this period. During the
year from 1 to 2, the baby amassed 50 new words. From 2 to 3
they will increase their vocabulary by more than /1000 words/!
*
The recurrent theme of this period is the phrase, "/What's
this/?" or some variation. The child has an innate "inquiring
mind that wants to know", and a brain that is ready to accept
and catalog this new information in volumes. I was once
introduced into a small group of people, which included a 3 year
old little girl. I immediately forgot everyone's name (as usual)
but was further embarrassed by the fact that the three year old
remembered everyone's name with ease.
*
Then I remembered how in my beginning college Russian class, I
wilted at the prospect of having to learn 10 new words per class.
*
This child eagerly sought out twice that many in a day and
needed no study cards to remember them. I was left to ponder the
differences in our brains.
_BE THERE !_
*
So what is the lesson to be learned here? We need to BE THERE to
provide that input during this period. That means reading to the
child a lot, and talking to him/her even more.
*
This is easier said than done. Answering the child's endless
requests for names and explanations, like "mad cow disease,"
will turn any adult's mind into mush in short order.
*
It takes high dedication, intense focus and selflessness beyond
belief to do this. Typically only well informed or fanatic
parents (usually mothers or grandmothers) will do this. Baby
sitters and day care attendants (who have other
responsibilities) typically will not bother or may not have the
time.
*
The time will pass, however, whether or not the input is
provided, and the window will close slowly. If the input has
been there, the impact on the child's language development will
be profound! You will become impressed with the child's
awareness of his/her environment, and the precision of his/her
thought processes.
*
You will marvel at the child's ability to express their thoughts
and/or to explain in detail why they are not doing what you told
them to do (the fruits of a formal language code).
_So, what is the child doing motorically at 2 1/2 to 3 years,
during the stage of Communicative Intent?_
*
_Motorically_, the child is stressing his/her mother out by
climbing and jumping a lot.
*
They can /stand on one foot/ in precarious places. They will get
into all kinds of containers using their /enhanced hand and
finger coordination/.
*
They will master the /six block tower/, although dad may have
some problems with it.
_THREE YEARS to Senescence--INDIVIDUO-WHAT?_
*
With the lexicon and grammar of the child well underway, the
next number of years will see a rhetorical style emerge,
including a host of favorite words and phrases. This will
continue throughout life and will change as the settings of the
individual change. This is referred to as INDIVIDUOLECT.
*
There is something more to be said about style, however, which
has a profound effect upon the child's future and is tied into
the parenting philosophy of the family. Two styles of language
were described by Basil Bernstein: /Restricted/ and /Formal/.
_Restricted Language--More Bang for your Buck_
*
_Restricted Language_ is the code used by people who are very
familiar with each other. I've been married for over 40 years.
My wife says, "/Can we.../.," I say "/I don't/...," and she
says, "/How about/..." and I say "/Fine!/"
o
Translated, that restricted language means that she wanted
to watch television tonight but I had to work on school
stuff, so she suggested as an alternate plan that we go for
walk later, and I said that it sounded like a good idea to me.
o
/Restricted Language/ is also the language used in a family
who subscribes to an /authoritarian/ approach to child rearing.
o
For example, in a family where both parents work and there
are several children, there is precious little time or
energy to get things done in the few hours before and after
work.
o
Efficiency is the key, so when dad or mom speak, children
are supposed to hop-to. Crisp commands like "/Turn it off!
Eat quietly! Sit up! Brush your teeth! Stop yelling! Get
dressed! Pick the toys up!!! Don't hit your sister/!" keep
things under control and get things done with a minimum
expenditure of time and energy!
o
Notice that much is accomplished with supra segmental
phonemes and body "language." On the other hand there is a
paucity of grammatical structures and transformational
rules. That, of course, is what makes it so efficient.
_Formal Language--More Bucks for your Bang_
*
_Formal Language_ is the code of a /democratic/ family
philosophy. Discussions abound but often not much gets done too
quickly.
o
For example, a supper scenario might go like this. Dad says,
"/Children, I have just noticed a thick column of black
smoke issuing from under the kitchen door. Would anyone like
to venture a guess as to the possible causes, and to the
options the family has in the event some kind of exodus is
required?/ If we compare this statment to it's restricted
counterpart, "/FIRE GET-OUT !/" it becomes apparent that the
former is laden with many more /grammatical structures./
Below is another illustration with more serious implications
than a cartoon might typically imply...
_So now, here is the child's problem_
+
I have used restricted language myself, for the same
reasons outlined above. It's kind of a "just this one
time to get things done," situation.
+
The problem is that because it is successful we tend to
use it more and more (kind of a Skinnerian or operant
conditioning effect I suppose).
+
We may use it in the morning to get everyone off on
time; and we may use it in the evening just to get
supper, clean the house; and in between to keep our sanity.
+
I think only a grandmother or grandfather can appreciate
how unbelievably quickly the /weeks (months-years) sneak
by/ while your doing this. And without realizing it,
/this has become the linguistic style of the
child-restricted language./
+
In essence, the child does not have a decoding system
that deals well with many syntactic nuances. He/she
finds these tedious and incomprehensible. This does not
set the stage favorabley to have good learning
experiences in school.
_So now here is the teacher's problem, part A_
+
Let's say that little Edward, who grew up in a
restricted language scenario as described above, is now
in the first or second grade. In a moment of high
spirits he is doing a Gene Kelly tap dance on top of one
of the classroom tables.
+
The teacher may say, "/Edward, Edward, would you
immediately climb down from that table. You may hurt
yourself, and you are putting scuff marks on the table,
which are difficult to remove. Besides, you know how
upset the principle would be if she saw you. She would
probably keep the whole class after school!/" Of course,
this is a formal language code and not within Edward's
ability to understand.
+
As he stands there looking at the teacher and thinking,
"HUH?" she wisely switches styles and says, "/GET DOWN
NOW/ !"
+
Comprehending the message Edward obediently complies. A
successful communication has taken place.
_So now here is the teacher's problem, part B_
+
Part A was solvable, but now the teacher tries to share
with the class some of the wonders of Science.
+
She tries to explain how.../the earth is a large round
ball with molten lava at its core, above which large
landmasses slowly float. In millions of years some of
the land masses actually crash together, wrinkling the
surface to make what seem to us to be large mountain
ranges/.
+
As before, Edward thinks, "HUH?" But now what is the
teacher to do.
+
There is nothing she can say that is analogous to "/GET
DOWN!/"
+
Edward will not be able to follow this lesson or almost
any other lesson. He will be bored and will perform poorly.
+
He has a significant language problem that is not a
consequence of brain damage or basic intelligence, but
of a restricted language code. How can a teacher with 20
or 30 students and a curriculum to follow reach this child?
_So now here is the solution_
+
Sorry folks, /there is no easy solution to this one/!
The best course of action is /PREVENTION/.
+
This takes the form of /counseling young parents/ to be
aware of the existence and consequences of restricted
language.
+
This is not to say that there is not a place for
restricted language. The child's safety and the parent's
sanity sometimes demand it. What the parent needs to
consider, however, is insuring EQUAL TIME for formal
language.
+
This means they must take care to include ample formal
language experiences each day.
+
For example they must follow restricted discourse with a
formal explanation, after the need has passed.
+
I might say, "/Edward-out of the Street-NOW!/" and then
follow it later with an explanation. "/Edward, I yelled
at you because you were in danger. The drivers of cars
cannot see you and may actually hit you etc. etc./"
_Here is some food for thought--Serve some Formal Language for
Meals_
+
Meal times for many families serves as a great
opportunity to discuss daily events using formal
language. In general, discussions should be encouraged
during as many family functions as possible.
+
As of course, the "earthquake" insurance for this earth
shattering linguistic catastrophe (restricted language)
is READING to the child every night, almost without fail.
+
Books are paragons of formal language, and by reading to
the child, we come as close as we can to insuring their
competence in understanding the complex syntactic and
morphological rules of language, not to mention
thousands of more words than they would have had.
+
It may not be an example of good etiquette, but in the
Hawking family, they spent much time reading at the
diner table. Stephen Hawking, of course, is one of the
most brilliant men alive today.
_So, what is the child doing motorically at 3 years, beginning
the stage of Individuolect ?_
+
_Motorically_, the child of three years is hopping on
one foot...
and running proficiently...
...and climbing stairs with alternating feet.
+
A definite hand preference has been established.
+
He/she can walk on a straight line...
+
...and can throw a ball to a receiver, and can catch a
ball with both arms.
_What more can I say?_
+
There are two more important situations to note, that
occur during this, the Individuolect period. One has to
do with /fluency/, and the other with /phoneme
pronunciation/.
+
_Fluency_: From around two to seven years of age, the
child is engaged in an activity that puts many college
students in fear--learning a new language. All things
being equal, it is a more daunting task for the child
because they not only have to learn the phonemes,
morphemes, syntax and pragmatics, but they also have to
learn the concepts that go with the symbols. In
addition, they have not had much time to sharpen their
study skills.
+
With the help of Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device,
and many other biological aids (as outlined by Eric
Lenneberg in his book, the Biological Foundations of
Speech), however, the child prevails and becomes a
linguistic communicator in fairly short order.
+
We almost forget that young children are still beginners
at the language game.
_Come together, right now over me_
+
But it does not, to semi quote the Beatles, -/...come
together right now,/... for the child.
+
In other words, there are many times that the child will
strive to find the correct word; to apply the best
syntax; to correlate the semantics and pragmatics in
order to most effectively communicate his/her thoughts.
And, because this is all new, many mistakes will be made.
+
The "comparator" for the child will be busy sending
error messages.
+
While the child gropes to make the repair, he/she may
make additional errors. Children will also frequently
supply "filler" sounds to hold their place in the
conversation.
+
Children, like adults, sense that if they are silent,
someone else will start talking, or the listener will
just become preoccupied with something else.
_Come, come, come, come, to..to..to..together right now, come
together right, right now over, over, over, over, over, over,
me. _
+
The bottom line is that you may hear in the child's
speech at this age, 2 to 7 years, some startling
dysfluencies.
+
This can be very unnerving to parents. When it's /your/
child that has the problem, it seems to be far more
menacing. For example, when this happened to our two
year old child, my wife became very upset and
immediately wanted to call in a speech pathologist.
+
I had to keep reminding her that we both /were/ speech
pathologists.
+
In the notes are some of her dysfluencies that occurred
in just one hour's time.
+
So what is to be done?
NOTES: Hear some normal, if not alarming,
dysfluencies in a two year-old child. <
http://www.csun.edu/~vcoao0el/webct/de361s141_folder/dysfluency.html>
_Come together, right now, but then wait and don't say anything_
+
When the child is dysfluent, the listeners (usually Mom
and Dad, and frequently extended family and friends)
should /wait patiently/, no matter how long it takes,
and then respond positively to the child's verbalization.
+
No verbal comments nor body language signs should be
made in the presence of the child to indicate concern or
dissatisfaction with the child's communication skills.
+
Parents, furthermore, should run interference for the
child and ward off any derogatory comments by other
children, teenagers or adults in front of the child.
+
For example, it is very natural for others to mimic the
child's dysfluency.
+
Eventually, maybe in months, the dysfluencies will
subside as mysteriously as they came.
_Stuttering can be a self fulfilling prophecy_
+
If the parents show their concern over the dysfluencies
to the child, or should others mimic and make fun of
him/her, the child's awareness of the "problem" will
likely be come accentuated.
+
Disapproval can lead to fear of failure, and fear leads
to failure when it comes to making the highly complex
fine motor movements of speech.
+
A life long struggle with dysfluency, now called
/stuttering/ may ensue, and like a firestorm may
escalate as fear brings failure, and failure brings more
fear.
+
_We have a problem!_ If there is evidence of
/struggling/ in the child's attempts to speak, such as
blinking eyes or pursed lips or increased oral pressure,
the cat is out of the bag and it is time to call in a
speech pathologist.
+
This is not to say that stuttering in every case is
caused by peoples response to a child's dysfluencies.
There are many other causes of stuttering, but this is
one pitfall that can and should be avoided.
_Not all sounds are created equal_
+
The other issue for Individuolect period is the child's
phoneme pronunciation. By four years of age, the child
is a master of English. At least as far as the
morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics are concerned.
+
Ironically, the mechanism upon which all these ride for
expressive language may not yet be complete. Not all
sounds are equal and hence not all sounds are learned at
the same age.
+
Some are easy to see and require large muscle action,
like /p/ and /m/. These you might expect the child to be
able to make by age three. On the other hand, /r/, /l/
and /s/, for example are difficult to see and require
complex motor adjustments of the tongue to produce.
+
It is not uncommon for children to acquire these sounds
after five years of age.
+
_We have /no/ problem!_ So, when little 3 year old
Edward says, "/I thee the puthy cat thitting on the
fenth./" is there cause for alarm?
+
It all depends on the sound and the age of the child. In
this case, for example, is the mispronounced sound, /s/,
one that is typically is mastered by a three year old
child?
_For this we have a solution._
+
Most texts on speech and/or language provide charts of
studies showing the average age of mastery of phonemes
in English for children in the general population.
+
The text, /Born To Talk/ includes a chart showing the
results of three different surveys. It shows that the
/s/ sound is not typically mastered by three year old
children. Parents need to be aware of this to lessen
their anxiety when it occurs.
+
It would be very unwise to chastise a 3 to 5 year old
child for mispronouncing /s/ or to try and cajole
him/her to produce a proper /s/ sound.
+
However, there is no harm in providing sound awareness
and discrimination training, which is all receptive to
these or any children. This can be done in a paradigm of
games or in stories, by simply accenting the sounds when
it occurs in the discourse.
_So have we said it all now?_
+
There is much more to language than we have presented,
obviously. That is one reason why we have included a
text. The folks who wrote this text have spent their
lives studying language, as have scores of other scholars.
+
What we have done here, with the limited time that we
have, is to reach into the heart of the matter so that
we can set a course for ourselves in promoting language
development, whether it is for our own children, our
grandchildren, or our charges in the classroom.
+
It is clear that we can and should facilitate the course
of language development for all children. What remains
now is /to do it/.
+
I hope this has been as much of a learning experience
for you as it has been for me. I have enjoyed working
with you!
+
In the notes below, is a final LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION
from the CD 361 OL Headmaster herself, your Professor's
Wife, in person, thanking you for your perseverance for
sticking with this course.
NOTES: See a final thank you message from the
HeadMaster. < wife.html>
THANK YOU FOR JOINING US IN THIS EXPERIENCE INTO THE PRESENT
PRESENT! HAVE A GREAT DAY AND A WONDERFUL AND PRODUCTIVE FUTURE!
*
RETURN TO
TOPIC 10
* < http://www.csun.edu/~vcoao0el/webct/cdshomeTopic10.html>
**
*
RETURN TO
THE TABLE OF CONTENTS
* < http://www.csun.edu/~vcoao0el/webct/cdshomeTOC.html >
** < http://www.csun.edu/~vcoao0el/webct/cdshomeTOC.html>
Dr. Hall