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It is the most precious commodity in our lives. Without it, our life span would be reduced to a fleeting moment-by-moment existence, not much richer than that of an ant. So what is this process? *RQc R  NWe might start by defining memory as the replication of a criterion response. We demonstrate memory by repeating something. This has been referred to as a Habit State. Right off the bat, we can see that other variables may creep into this definition. The ability to repeat something can be effected by factors other than memory. NOc cc O ,Memory Performance includes Non-Habit States2-,' e - Hence, performance on a memory task must be accounted for by at least two variables: The Habit State and Non-Habit States. One example of a Non-Habit state effecting memory performance is fatigue. Fatigue, of course itself is complex. It can be caused by the depletion of the nutrients necessary for neural processing; and/or by sleep deprivation. Another Non-Habit stage is motivation. iccLccc cc   oUndergraduate psychology majors often have to ask busy peers, as part of a class assignment, to memorize lists of associated nonsense words. They often find the memory capacities among their college comrades to be at an alarmingly low ebb. Had they been able to offer their subjects $1000 for the same task, they would have had different results I suspect (hope). ppc p 3Memory is a Complex Process with many sub-processes243' e 4 Distractions would be a third example of a Non-Habit state. I'm sure you can think of many more that must be considered. Dedicated researchers have, and are spending their lives studying memory, and still the answers to exactly what it is, are not yet known. I think it is safe to say, however, that memory like language, is not a single process but a composite of many processes in the brain, < cc   2and ultimately some outside of the brain. Hence, the word "memory" is a simple term for a very complex phenomenon. What does it mean to memorize something? A series of very different memory functions are involved. Let's say the task is to remember a word--a basic need for developing our vocabulary. *32c 3 Short-term Memory2' e  vThis would include at least three processes: Short-term memory; Long-term memory; and the conversion of information from Short-term to Long-term memory. (Check the notes for further discussion on memory processes and the types of memory) Short-term memory is of particular importance in the auditory modality, where the stimulus doesn't hang around very long. Speech, forw-cccc c cccucg w  kexample, as we discussed earlier, is a discursive stimulus--strung out in time. It is impossible to have a Gestalt experience of a single spoken sentence. Unlike a picture, the stimulus for the beginning of sentence is gone before half of the first phrase is expressed. Yet we need the whole sentence to understand the significance of the individual words. *lkc l Sensory Short-term memory2' e  Actually, we never hear a word all at once either, or for that matter, not even a phoneme. What we actually hear is a sustained crackling noise. It takes a battery of short-term memory processes to achieve recognition. This first of these processes in the battery is what I would call Sensory Short memory. The auditory modality in particular includes a process, which provides an experience analogous to the afterglow@ccsc   Uof the blips on a radar screen. This process holds on to the blips long enough (in milliseconds) to show relationships. Similarly patterns of overtones can be discerned through Sensory Short-term memory. Hence, we can recognize phonemes as if we heard them in their entirety. Here, in the Notes, are other descriptions of sensory memory:VVc V  Perceptual Short-term memory2' e  Particularly amazing and crucial to recognizing words and sentences is what I would refer to as Perceptual Short-term memory, which lasts up to around 2 seconds. Professors often speak 20 to 30 words in a sentence and then keep on rambling mindless of the fact that the listener must retain the whole litany of words in their order before the meaning of the sentence can be determined. What isN`ccc   more, Professors give little time for completion of this process, and keep the words coming for the next, and the next and the next sentence. It seems almost inhumane, and yet students rarely yell, "Slow down!" In fact in one class, where the speaking style of the instructor was such that he spoke at a rate of around one word a second, the students were literally falling asleep. c   The magical number 72' e  oFor the normal human listener, holding on to the sentence in perceptual short-term memory is no problem. We are wired for this (neurologically speaking) and improve upon the network as we mature. We can easily hold the sentences long enough to abstract their meaning and then, dismiss them and go on to the next one. The magic number for memory length in perceptual@p?cc!c     +short-term memory is 7 chunks of information. For the five year old child, it would be closer to 5 chunks. Here are some interesting notes on digit span on the Web in the notes below. We can typically pack more into a message, however, by using strategies to increase the size of each chunk. ,,c+   GReduced chunk capacity may impede our ability to understand a sentence.*HG   H {Children who's brain structure may be slow to mature, or who have neurological deficits; and adults with brain pathologies and/or advanced age related cell loss may have as a result, less chunk capacity. This can ultimately impeded their understanding of sentences. Of course you don't have to be immature or brain damaged to experience this problem. You need only be a Latin *|{c |  student. When I was in the sixth grade, for example, we had to select a language. In the private school I was attending at the time, Latin was the politically correct choice. I suffered through the declensions and conjugations and survived to go on to Latin II in High School. Here Caesar described in short sentences his exploits as he divided Gaul into three parts, and with his disciplined legions subdued all of the "barbarians."rcccctcc   BCicero spoke of many things, but all of them in the same sentence.*CB   C By  barbarians, I think Caesar was referring to the French, the Germans and the English. At any rate, buoyed by his descriptions and my success in being able to decode them, in college I ventured boldly where no Hall had ever gone before& Latin III. Talk about the three-strikes-rule and your out! I should have stayed with Latin II and the barbarians. ffce   Latin III was a disaster. Here we studied Cicero, one of Rome's outstanding orators. The signature of a good orator, in those days was one who spoke (wrote) in long sentences. And Cicero was not just good& he was great! I don't recall, for the two weeks I lasted in the class, coming across a sentence that was less than two pages long. XXcW    EPerceptual Short-term memory span is related to academic achievement.*FE   F By the time I got to the end of one of Cicero s sentences, with all it's conjoined, embedded and subordinate clauses and phrases, I had totally forgotten what the beginning was all about. My comprehension of his sentences was nothing more than a series of wrong guesses based on scattered words from here and there that I could remember. I'm sure the experience for children, who have limitedc '  ^  pperceptual memory skills, may be similar, only they are listening to the teacher s oral instructions. Here, in the Notes, are some examples of Short-term memory tests and/or training experiences. Also, there is a Web Site in the Notes that discusses the relationship of digit span memory to academic achievement:*98c 9  Working Short-term Memory2' e  }There is another short-term memory circuit that we have. We use it to hold on to information long enough to commit it to long-term memory; or to use it to meet an immediate goal (within 12 hours), like solving a problem or for test taking purposes. I view this as Working Short-term memory. This usually requires repetition of a stimulus many times to retain the information. N~ ccXc}   K I have a poor working memory. Yes, I noticed.LL L  9Repetition is the workhorse of Working Short-term Memory.<:8    : JCollege students use Working Short Term memory and repetition by design to learn lists of facts. They may make a deck of study cards and run through them many times. Small children use it by serendipity to learn vocabulary and grammatical rules. They will ask their parents to read a book to them over and over and over again. KKc K  fNoticed what ? Here, in the Notes above, is a further discussion of both sensory and working memory.*gWc g  The Conversion Process2' e  Just beneath each temporal lobe is a little patchwork of cells quite different in their appearance from the typical neurons. These two networks are responsible for converting information in the Short-term circuits to the Long-term memory bank. They cover only a small area of the brain, but for all intents and purposes, they are our life! Should both these areas be damaged by something like*c6~    5  anoxia or brain trauma, our life, as we remember it would end at that instant. We could remember the past up to that point, and we could remember the present as far as long a Short-term memory permits, but everything beyond that point would be totally forgotten in a matter of hours. If such a thing occurred to me, for example, before President Kennedy's death, my conversation to this day would still be about that president and his times.*c6P      $How sweet it is to be able to learn!2%$' e % ~Without the conversion process, I would be totally amazed each time I was brought up to date by friends, but would quickly loose all memory of these conversations and be left to eternally contemplate how the Cold War is going. Because of the structural differences of these conversion cells from regular neurons, their operation cannot be surrogated by the typical surrounding nerve*~c   cells when they are damaged. Hence, there is a poor prognosis for my ever learning anything new. In other words, my life stopped at the point the conversion process was impaired. There is one tiny window left open, however, and we will discuss that next under Long-term memory, if it doesn t slip my mind. As you have come to expect, no doubt, Long-term memory is no simple processes*c  .Long-term memory is a bundle of sub processes.2/.g c  / HIncluded among the Long-term memory processes are: episodic memory, the memory of our past; language memory with its vocabulary and grammar; semantic memory, our understanding of the world (concepts); motor-memory for motor patterns (the mixer); and implicit memory, in which some researchers also include motor memory. I6cccc#cc.c c&cc8cH   ZAlthough they obviously communicate with each other, in many ways these processes seem to lead separate lives. Episodic Memory: This is the memory of our past. Like in a movie we can envision the communities of our youth; see the faces of our family and friends and hear their voices. It is one of the joys of life that we take for granted. H[p###Z  MEpisodic Memory holds the past, and Language Memory holds the key to tell it.*NM   N xWe all have heard accounts of amnesia victims who have lost all memory of their past. They don t know where they were born and raised, or even where they live now. Strikingly, what they have not lost is their knowledge of the world around them (semantic memory), nor their language to express all their confusion.H=##w# =  Language Memory: A person with amnesia can t recall the past but can discuss it with no problem. A person with a language problem, on the other hand, can remember the past but can t recall his/language to talk about it. This, as we have discussed earlier, is called aphasia. Of course, Language memory itself isn t a single separate entity either. ``cccLc,    )Language Memory is a bundle of processes.**)   * tThere are, for example, separate language processes in the brain for naming things; for applying grammatical rules; and for handling the symbols of mathematics. I may have grammar but not be able to recall the names of things or visa-versa. Or, I may not be able to recognize numbers. There are typically language processes in the visual and auditory modalities, so thatuuc u  |if a person can not speak, he may be able to communicate through writing. There are receptive, inner and expressive language processes. I may not be able to say a word, but I may understand most everything that is said to and around me. How frightening it would be to lose both episodic and language processes ! And yet, I am sure there are people who have experienced this. }}c } "Motor Memory (procedural memory): F# ' ' e # JWe don t often realize how much we rely on motor memory in our daily lives. But almost every act from brushing our teeth to speaking depends upon this memory bank. When things go wrong and we can t find these motor patterns or we continually retrieve the wrong ones, we have what is called apraxia. This can be severe enough to preclude ever learning to speak, or to use sign language or to just plain walk or crawl. cB  }  z   On the other hand, learning new motor patterns involves some unique features. One is that the learning process seems to somehow bypass the conversion process from Short-term to Long-term memory. Hence, if the conversion process is disrupted and we can no longer learn anything new, we can still learn new motor patterns! Happily, the opportunity to learn new crafts, sports and music skills is not beyond reach. c  Semantic Memory2' e  HOur recognition of things around us is yet another isolated memory process. I have seen an aphasic, who couldn t say a word, demonstrate his knowledge of the world by repairing a television set. When it is severe and we lose recognition of things, which would hamper such an activity, we are said to have agnosia. It can be almost global so that we appear to be deaf or blind, or it can be very mild and transient. c,3  i   lTo a lesser extent we may lose learned knowledge. This is an understanding of worldly processes and abstract concepts such as we may learn in school. This may include things like our understanding of molecular structure, democracy, anatomy or how to repair a television set etc. There is one other not so well understood memory process called implicit memory.mmc m Implicit Memory2' e  Aside from procedural memory, Implicit Memory is the  new kid on the block, in that not too much is known about it. It appears we are capable having experiences where we learned something, and then losing all recollection of the experience. The only traces that would be evident would be our responses on a test, which would be more correct than could be accounted for by zzc z  0random choice. This is compatible with a process of forgetting, we will talk about shortly, called trace inhibition. Below in the notes is a web site which discusses implicit memory as it relates it to motor learning. In the meantime, we will turn our attention to my favorite activity--forgetting. *1/c 1 CForgetting: Trace Decay, Trace Transformation and Trace Inhibition2DC' e D zAll these memory functions we have been discussing are semi separate processes. We can fail to remember (actually fail to learn) if these processes are disrupted, no doubt. And of course, as we mentioned earlier, memory performance can falter because of the effects of the Non Habit States. But what seems unexpected, is that forgetting can also be the result of a process. {{cz   _In fact, like memory, there are a number of processes associated with forgetting. We will talk about three here (although there are probably more): Trace Decay, Trace Transformation and Trace Inhibition. Trace Decay: Although I have seen references to Long-term memory, Trace Decay seems to be more relevant to the Short-term memory process. N`c cc_  $LTrace Decay--More than 50% of information learned is lost in the first hour.*ML   M vAnyone who has scurried around searching to find a pencil while trying to retain a phone number in their head knows the fragility of the perceptual short term memory. Experiments by Hermann Ebbinghaus showed that the greatest amount of memory loss (over 50%) occurs within one hour after learning (providing there are no variables like organization, meaning or association*wvc      Dinvolved). By the end of the day we may loose a whopping 75%. One antidote against the forgetting curve is what is called Rehearsal repeating the information to ourselves. This works because the memory trace, if the stimulus is not repeated, will quickly dissipate. By rehearsing, we keep the memory loop active until we either use the information (and then let it fade) or commit it to working-short term memory. bzc cccc  %+Rehearsal counteracts the forgetting curve.*,+   , Most children will spontaneously adapt a rehearsal strategy. Some, however, need coaching in this regard. In studying information by rote (repetition), rehearsal well beyond the point where the information is committed to memory actually has been found to retard the forgetting curve significantly. Here in the Notes are further discussions of Trace Decay and the role of rehearsal.@ccc   hAnother set of antidotes, as you can imagine, are Organization, Meaning and Association. Through these strategies, particularly organization which we will discuss later, the forgetting curve can be significantly diminished. Here is an interesting web site providing some further discussion of the role of organization as a way of counteracting memory loss. di2ccc cc i &QReminiscence, Primacy and Recency Effects are processes that retard Trace Decay. *RQ     0 There are other important processes that mitigate against the forgetting curve. One is called the Reminiscence Effect, which occurs anywhere from seconds to minutes and longer after learning. It is a brief spike in the curve in which the recall of learned material actually increases. This is believed to be a result of a consolidation process, which involves reinforcement and integration of the newvccccc cBc   material with data already stored. Others include the Primacy and Recency Effects where you retain the first and last bits of data learned in a series. Taken together (i.e., 1. Reminiscence, and 2. The Primacy and Recency Effects) the wisdom of many short breaks in learning becomes clearly evident! They provide time for the first process to occur, and proliferate the opportunities for the second to take place. 6ccXcAcccc    'QWarm-ups, and the Von Restorff Effect are also processes that retard forgetting.RR    4 xThe Warm-up Effect is yet another antidote to the forgetting curve. The effect is not unlike warming up for an athletic activity. It is an excellent reason to have a review at the beginning of each new lesson! And last but not least is the Von Restorff Effect. Please quickly read and try to remember the following list of words:  talk, tree, fish, cake, monumental, pea, cup, dog, ran, jaw, cool, dumb, make, ship, fight, ring, and zip. ccccIci##c6  q     $You will probably remember  talk and  zip because of the Primacy and Recency effects; but you would also typically remember  monumental because it stands out from the rest. That is the Von Restorff Effect and can be used to good advantage for important things we want someone to remember. For example we can exaggerate it, make it bizarre, make it unique, bold and underline it, and you name it! rccccc6F  s    (,Trace Transformation--another way to forget.2-,' e - ZDid anyone ever tell you about the  good old days ? You usually find it wasn t so good if you investigate it little further. I once gave my eight-year old a birthday buddy-slumber party. The kids (guests) came early and argued and complained all night about the accommodations. The next day we all went to Griffith Park to ride the merry-go-round. The kids argued in the car over things like window seats and leg space etc. .cc ~  /  @Because it was raining the Merry-go-round wasn t working. Ultimately we fed everybody soggy-cold-hot-dogs, which the kids all said they hated. Because everyone was bored, we went home, but not before several got lost and needed to be found. They fought in the car again, and when we got home, they argued over the TV programs, which they wanted to watch until their parents came. Hence, I was very surprised....cc    )tThe  Good Old Days are a product of Trace Transformation.*;:   ; ...when the next year, my eight-year old asked if we could have another  fun slumber party for his coming birthday. He sited all the great experiences they had had in the previous party-- sleeping with friends over-night, having an exiting ride to the park, experiencing fun games and great food at the park, and then having a real cool TV marathon when they got home. .utcc u  @That s not how I remembered it! What happened? Trace Transformation happened. The memory wasn t forgotten, but was changed, according to the Laws of Pragnanz, just as it is in perception. As we discussed earlier, the Laws of Pragnanz change percepts, and now memories, for the better. N!0ccc6  E  5 *Trace Inhibition-- Old memories are never lost, they just can t be found.2JI' e J wIn the game of pick-up-sticks, if I place a single stick in a cardboard box, I can retrieve it from the box with no difficulty. If I subsequently place a hundred more in the box on top of the first stick, I may not only find it impossible to retrieve the first, but I may loose all sight of it. This is analogous to what happens to old memories in Long-term memory. When*xwc6    M  Vwe have a single experience, it is easy to recall. But once there have been many similar experiences, the first may be out of consciousness. A child will have learned an entire language system (let s say Russian) by five years of age. But let that five year old come to the United States for the rest of his life and not hear his native language, he will learn the new one totally, and lose any recollection of the first. *c,    +<Recent memories may be destroyed first by a brain pathology.0=<' c  =  After many years of drinking American diet colas, and fast foods, our English speaking Russian child (now an adult) could actually have a serious stroke. It s not uncommon for strokes to wipe away the most recently acquired knowledge. So after his recovery in the hospital, much to the amazement of everyone including himself he may lose the ability to speak English, but find himself speaking in*c6  R    Russian??! How can this be? Trace inhibition suggests that nothing is lost from Long-term memory, but is obliterated by new experiences. It works more noticeably in daily living. Taking classes back-to-back, for example, not only creates fatigue but triggers an inhibition process in Long-term memory. The result is a decreased ability to recall the learned material in both classes! Nwcc c,    ,2Trace Inhibition is both retroactive and proactive33'  3 Here is one small experience I had with proactive- retroactive Inhibition. I am very familiar with the English pronoun  You. Why not, since I am an native English speaker. But when I studied Russian, the pronoun  Ya which means  I, always gave me pause for thought, because I confused it with  You. Later in vain attempt to learn Spanish, I was hopelessly lost and still am*c6K      with the pronoun  Yo!  You inhibited  Ya (proactive) where as  Yo also dealt a death blow to  Ya (retroactive) which likewise weakened my recall of  Yo (proactive inhibition). It s a wonder I can still speak English considering all the languages I have failed at. On the other hand I am sure yo ( I mean you) have all experienced without realizing it the absence of inhibition.*cn        7    T -To sleep is to forget not& which is why, I suppose, students never forget a thing in my lectures.<a G  a sIf you have ever studied at night before you go to bed, you have without realizing it tested the inhibition hypothesis. Because there were few, if any, experiences for you before you awoke, your recall in the morning will be almost total. On the other hand, if you study in the morning and then are exposed to the experiences of the day your memory loss over the next*tsc t  six hours will be significantly greater. The factors of emotion and stress,of course, play important roles in learning and forgetting. Also, the interactions between Long-term memory and working memory is as complex as it is important. Some of these issues are touched upon in the links we have provided along the way. For now, lets switch our focus to what can be done to improve memory.c  .9There are Two Schools of Thought on how to Improve Memory2:9' e : zI see two approaches to the problem of improving memory. The first, I call the Arnie Schwarzenegger approach because it advocates exercises and drill to make physical changes in body structure. If I need to change the tire on my car, for example, I could choose, like Arnie, to build my body so I could lift the car up with my left hand while I change the tire with my right. @{PcccBO    g   (I was going to insert a picture of my self above and call it the Ed Hall approach, but my wife says my physique is more like the Jack under the car in the next picture, so we are left with Arnie.)Nccc    / \If you can t be like Arnie, hit the road Jack.*/.      Of course, our discussion here, is not about the muscular system but rather the neural infra-structure for memory. This is what we are talking of developing through mental exercises. c   &The second approach involves using the body structure I have now, and employing some kind of strategy. For example, a car jack would provide leverage for me to lift the car while my wife changes the tire. The job gets done although there has been no change in my neurological infra-structure.t']ccccc# ' 0!Which Approach Works Best2' e  The question is, which approach works best? The answer to this question, if it appears on the Topic Quiz, is  Yes and  No. Well, it wasn t a brain surgeon who wrote the quiz, so what can I say. Actually, it all depends on the age of the individual and the goals we establish for training. For the old folk (22 years and aging), if memory loss isb-ccc ccc(c (  9  a real problem (particularly if it results from some kind of brain trauma), research suggests that Strategies are the best way to go. These will provide gains in memory performance that are more meaningful for them to deal with the routines of daily living. The Arnie Schwarzenegger approach seems to bring results that are too minimal to be useful to significantly improvfe performance on daily tasks. Ncc c)cn  |    T    1"Strategies are the best way to go for the geriatric set, but don t sell Arnie short.0UT' c  H   This does not mean, however, that the Arnie Schwarzenegger approach is of no value to the geriatric set. Although the gains through memory practice may be minimal, it is better to make progress in inches than to recede in miles. I would do it (I do do it) just for the neural health of it. Especially since it has been recently demonstrated that the adult has the capacity to regenerate new nerve cells!c6%  0  .  This takes place in the hippocampus, which is also a neural center for learning. To insure the best growth environment for this trickle of new cells, stimulation of this area may be very important. Learning new things would seem highly appropriate for this purpose. Here, in the Notes, is an interesting and relevant discussion on memory rehabilitation and Lymes disease in adults.@Gcc2c6   D   4#HThe Arnie Schwarzenegger Approach is the best way to go for the baby set2IH' e   1  For the very young set (birth to puberty), I would strongly favor the exercise and drill approach not physical but mental, of course. We have discussed how an integral part of the neural growth process is stimulation. We have seen evidence of retarded brain growth in Rumanian orphans who have been relatively deprived of stimulation. We know that stimulating the young brain brings very largedccc cc   gains. In other words we know what to do and when to do it! Now comes the how. Any activity that exercises memory in the infant is worth its weight in gold.  I TOLD YOU WE SHOULDN T CALL HER ARNIE!>c)#c  5$$Experiences are the name of the Game*%$# #  % Having many objects pass by the infant s eyes, ears and hands, gives them the opportunity to recognize (learn) objects. This is exercising the memory tracts and making neurons expand like popcorn. We are talking toys here. Not just an amorphous array of plastic objects, but objects of many textures, (cloths, wood, plastic, paper etc.) and many shapes (balls, squares, rectangles, polygons, dolls, imitation fruits and vegetables, etc.) and sizes! #   This requires considerable monitoring on the part of the caretakers. Objects have to be selectively placed within the infant's (toddler's) reach, and the infant (toddler) must be monitored at all times for safety's sake. Games: Playing little games with the infant, like patty-cake and many others (available in many baby type books) is an excellent way to start. Later on most games that have parts and procedures will stimulate the memory tracts. >#cc  6%&Games are the name of the experiences.*'&# #  ' jThe game of concentration is a classic. This is where you have a matrix of cards face down. You turn them face up two at a time and try to select pairs. Those that are not pairs are placed face down again. I once met a four year old boy (a student's son) who was an aficionado of the game and could beat the pants off an adult (unfortunately me). Of course, most children s activities will provide some memory stimulation.  Simonc   Says, for example, is a good drill for executive memory. The child has to hold the criteria for a response in working memory while he processes the commands in perceptual short-term memory. To me the ultimate memory game, for older children over 4 years, is chess. Here is a classic memory game with retention and recall tasks abounding on many levels. ffc f 7&We can t read too much into this, nor can we read too much to the child of any age.*TS# #  T 2Reading: Of course, the  big gun is reading to the infant (toddler or child). Nursery Rhymes serve well, at first, and as the infant grows into a toddler, short simple stories and then longer and more complex stories become appropriate. The activity of reading to an infant (a toddler, or a child) has it all! It provides opportunities to remember many things from the prosody of language, to phonemes, .cc   _morphemes syntax and vocabulary; and later details about the book itself, from the pictures in the book, to the characters, their names and the story line. Each time we read to a child, no matter how young or old, it is a mega-shot of growth vitamins in the arm (or more appropriately in the brain) like we wish ginka-baloba would be for us adults. ``#6:     8' To Be or Not to Be, that is the recitation that stretches men s minds.  Et Tu Brute? *ZY# #  Z Recitation: For children who have acquired expressive language, memorizing poems, documents (eg., The Declaration of Independence) and stories are excellent memory exercise activities. Also valuable for developing memory is the process of memorizing parts in short skits and plays (drama classes). Even the undertaking of learning another language is a excellent source for engaging in memory drills. * ##,]  5   PLatin, which was a dead-end for me academically, was probably a significant factor in giving me what little memory power I do possess. The process of memorizing the vocabulary, the many declensions of the nouns and the conjugations of verbs, required a vigorous a regime of mental exertion. I still get a headache thinking about it.QQ# Q 9(5There is more to Sports and Music than meets the ear.,65# c  6 Sports and Music: These activities are interesting because they exercise both implicit and explicit memory. The implicit memory involves the learning of motor patterns for the musical instrument and/or the sport; and the explicit memory involves such things as learning the notes of music and the rules of the game. In terms of music, I have always been partial to starting children with piano. I would begin exposure around 2 years.cc6m    v  of age and move toward lessons/fun experiences as soon as the child can handle them. There are those who would warn of burnout, but I believe the opportunity to develop neural infra-structure during this window of neural hyper-growth is well worth the risk! In the area of motor activities, I have always been impressed with ballet (for both boys and girls. It is the ultimate sport). c  :)/Developing Memory can be a drilling experience.,0/# c  0 @Ballet s requirements to remember the sequences of drills at the bar, and the combination of steps in center floor is excellent memory stimulation. It is impressive to see young students develop this capability. Of course, most sports will provide exemplary drill for improving memory skills. Drill: Of course, there are activities that are nothing but drill. Practicing recalling increasing strings of digits or@(cctc   Pletters or both would be one example. Reciting poems like  This is the house that Jack built would be another (Try putting this in audio); or playing the short-term memory game where one person says,  I went to the store to buy& a loaf of bread; the next person says  & a loaf of bread and carrots; the third person says,  a loaf of bread, carrots, and milk; and so forth till the list becomes a struggle to remember. c  <+The big gun for developing memory is a  Magnum 44 aimed at the TV Set.,HG# c  H bSome computer programs provide excellent memory practice for older children. Destroying the TV Set: The anti-Christ of memory growth (and language and cognitive development as well) for children under five is TV. Time watching TV is worse than being mentally  dead-in-the-water, because it gobbles up time that should have been devoted to brain growth. Instead, we get at best mental stagnation. I particularly find useless, the@MccPc   mindless cartoons that spout violence. The emphasis is on brief bursts of sensationalism using sounds and sights, which provide immediate gratification and little need for memory ( Mr. Roger s Neighborhood is a shinning exception to this rule). Show me a family whose TV is kept in the closet and I will show you some kids with excellent memory (and language skills). I would limit the child over five to 1/2 hour a day of carefully selected educational shows devoid, if possible, of any commercials.@c>cc6    9 =,0Increasing memory performance through strategies410g e 1 mThere are things we can do to obtain an immediate increase in our memory performance. Sometimes they involve using a tool, and sometimes they involve creating a mind-set. For an interesting analysis of mind-sets, check-out the site in the Notes below, Strategy Tools for Memory: The tool perhaps most known to students is the time-honored custom of taking notes. @nccWc n  nIn view of the sharp decline of short-term memory curve, it seems we are all at great risk for remembering little of class lectures, if not the whole semester of classes. But because we write notes that provide details and trigger other memories by association, we are able to retain a lot more information from these experiences than would normally be the case. ooc,    >-5Organization is the bases for most memory strategies.*65# #  6 Modern technology has provided tape recorders, video cameras and computers to enrich the note taking process. Appointment books serve a similar purpose. Other strategies involve asking someone else to remind us to do something; or employing some bizarre activity, like tying a string around a finger to serve as a reminder of something. While many of these strategies are inappropriate for young children, video cameras andc   tape recorders may help them to remember and more fully enjoy recent events, like birthday parties or excursions, for example, to the zoo or to the country etc. Strategy Mind-sets for Memory: For the most part, a single word forms the bases for most strategies--organization. Organizing information, whether realistically or artificially is very helpful to recall. One form of organization is called chunking.dccccc  ?.JMiller s magical number was 7 chunks.*&%# #  & jChunking: It is estimated that the human Short-term memory process can take in information at about 2 bits per second. That is interesting, but not too helpful from a practical stand-point. What is more practical is Miller s magical number 7. This suggests that  perceptual Short-term memory can handle 7  chunks of information at one time. Through special organization, we can increase the amount of information in each chunk. .cc     ~The phone company put this into use when first they limited phone numbers to 7 digits (for example 6772828); and then broke it up into two chunks (viz. 677 2828) and later three (viz. 818, 677 2858). Mnemonic devices are another form of chunking. Supposed one had to remember a useless array of 9 letters, for example: H M L T S F T H R It would be a bit of a pain. cB      @/%Mnemonic devices are chunk crunchers.,&%# c      Remembering the letter sequence H M L T S F T H R would become easier if you hit on some kind of scheme to remember it as: HAMLETS FATHER This reduces the number of chunks of information to be remembered from 9 to 2 ! (H M L T S) (F T H R) Now, you will remember this trivial bit of information probably for the rest of your life! In the world of music, students who are struggling to remember the names of the spaces between( ccccccccccccccccccIcccQc cc c]c_#   <the lines, often employ the mnemonic device,  face, to reduce five chunks of information to one. See the Notes below for more discussion on mnemonic devices#  A05Visual Memory Pegs are something to hang memories on.*65# #  6 Here, in the Notes below is another very detailed site to check out on mnemonics, which includes memory pegs which we will be discussing next. Visual Memory pegs: For individuals, who want to remember lists of items, visual memory pegs are often found to be useful. The organization here exists in a set of mental pictures which are often committed to Long-term memory through wrote learning. >#cc   6The organization is then disrupted in bizarre manner to create a resistant memory trace. For example, here is a short excerpt from a web advertisement of a book called  Remember This Book, by Mark Shouldice: To go to the original site for Mark Shouldice click on the Notes below.2cGL     $    B1RIt takes memory to learn Grammar, but then Grammar facilitates memory performance.*SR# #  S Verbal Memory Pegs: Concepts by the virtue of their organization and their verbal labels improve memory performance. If you need to remember animals, you may classify them as  farm animals, or  domestic pets etc., which in essence reduces the number of chunks necessary to be processed.. Grammar: The rules of morphology and syntax supply organization to the flow of words in speech (or SignRcccbc v    Language). Hence words (or signs) presented in grammatical order will be easier to remember: For example, in the following lists of 18 words each, which is list is easier to recall: 1. Cat, to, paper, singing, sits, sheep, cards, lovely, is, sun, paper, cutting, some, his, in, who, a, friend. 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8lfffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffa`!fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff$8Pvfff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffk fff ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff>4xx4ffffffffffffffffffffffffff+*kajffffffffffffffffffffffffff8<ffKKKKLff 02223TLfffffffff~fffffffff0ffffffffffff ffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffffkkcA  ffffffffffff ffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffff4iffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff`!JffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffHFf ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffw f ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffxmdBffffxijxTffffffffffffff ffffffffffffffffffffff ff fffffffffffffffffffffffffff fffffffffffffffff fffffff  fffff fffffffffffffffff fffffffffffffffff fffffff ffffffffff fffffffff݁݁$bkjjbkjZZ<*f}`kf5 ffffffffffffffhkPBffffffffffffffPpffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff`^h*ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff ,<xfffffffffffff ffffffffffff`k˝d {fffffffffffff ffffffffffff5x|4fffffffffffffffaKD*fffffffffffffff@L8<)fakcA`fF4$ܤ"|#$``݁݁݁݁݁݁݁݁݁݁DocumentSummaryInformation8QCurrent User$ ՜.+,D՜.+,H        'On-screen Showf CDS CSUN Sh/+Z2: 9Times New RomanImpactTimesComic Sans MSBlushMicrosoft Word DocumentMicrosoft Word PictureMemory is a Habit State: -Memory Performance includes Non-Habit States4Memory is a Complex Process with many sub-processesShort-term MemorySensory Short-term memoryPerceptual Short-term memoryThe magical number 7HReduced chunk capacity may impede our ability to understand a sentence.CCicero spoke of many things, but all of them in the same sentence.FPerceptual Short-term memory span is related to academic achievement.Working Short-term Memory:Repetition is the workhorse of Working Short-term Memory.The Conversion Process%How sweet it is to be able to learn!/Long-term memory is a bundle of sub processes.NEpisodic Memory holds the past, and Language Memory holds the key to tell it.*Language Memory is a bundle of processes.#Motor Memory (procedural memory): Semantic MemoryImplicit MemoryDForgetting: Trace Decay, Trace Transformation and Trace InhibitionMTrace Decay--More than 50% of information learned is lost in the first hour.,Rehearsal counteracts the forgetting curve.RReminiscence, Primacy and Recency Effects are processes that retard Trace Decay. RWarm-ups, and the Von Restorff Effect are also processes that retard forgetting.-Trace Transformation--another way to forget.;The Good Old Days are a product of Trace Transformation.JTrace Inhibition-- Old memories are never lost, they just cant be found.=Recent memories may be destroyed first by a brain pathology.3Trace Inhibition is both retroactive and proactiveaTo sleep is to forget notwhich is why, I suppose, students never forget a thing in my lectures.:There are Two Schools of Thought on how to Improve Memory/If you cant be like Arnie, hit the road Jack.Which Approach Works BestUStrategies are the best way to go for the geriatric set, but dont sell Arnie short.IThe Arnie Schwarzenegger Approach is the best way to go for the baby set%Experiences are the name of the Game'Games are the name of the experiences.TWe cant read too much into this, nor can we read too much to the child of any age.ZTo Be or Not to Be, that is the recitation that stretches mens minds. Et Tu Brute?6There is more to Sports and Music than meets the ear.0Developing Memory can be a drilling experience.HThe big gun for developing memory is a Magnum 44 aimed at the TV Set.1Increasing memory performance through strategies6Organization is the bases for most memory strategies.&Millers magical number was 7 chunks.&Mnemonic devices are chunk crunchers.6Visual Memory Pegs are something to hang memories on.SIt takes memory to learn Grammar, but then Grammar facilitates memory performance.Enough of this...  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