EVOLUTION QUESTION  1974:			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
   	Hereditary variations are essential to the evolution of populations.
       	A. 	Describe the different types of hereditary variability.
      	B. 	Explain how this variability can lead to the origin and  maintenance of species.
 	
 STANDARDS:
Total points possible for Part A and Part B = 18. 
Candidates receiving 15, 16, 17,or 18 points are given a score of 15 for this essay.

PART A. (19 possible responses, with a maximum of 9 points given for this section)
   For the seven mutation types that follow, 1/2 point is given for the naming, 1/2 point 
   is given for explaining, for a total of 7 possible responses; Maximum of 6 points given.

   MUTATION TYPES: point, deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, polysomy, 
                                  polyploidy

   MUTATION ORIGIN: spontaneous or induced (listing inducing agent) - 1 point;
      mechanism of induction or of mutation or relating process to evolution - 1 point;
      mutations are rare, random, or usually deleterious - 1 point each;

   EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS: Indicate with some explicitness the type(s) of phenotypic 
   effects - 1 point;
      spell out how the gene change leads to phenotypic change - 1 point;
      Recombination: independent assortment, crossing-over - 1 point;
      role of sex in facilitating recombination - 1 point;
      any consideration of asexual reproduction - 1 point;
      "hidden" variation: epistasis - 1 point;

PART B. (12 possible responses, with a maximum of 9 points given)
   Only inherited (germ-line) changes are important - 1 point;
   POPULATION CHANGE DURING EVOLUTION
   NATURAL SELECTION: The fittest, in relation to environment, survive - 1 point;
   mechanism involves differential survival &/or reproduction - 1 point;
   GENETIC DRIFT: random change in gene frequencies in small populations 1 point;
   may account for large number of alleles in large populations - 1 point;
   CONTINUOUSLY CHANGING ENVIRONMENT: leads to continuing evolution - 1 point;

   SPECIATION
   GEOGRAPHIC: Isolation leads to divergence - 1 point;
   mechanism for the build-up of difference - 1 point;
   Sympatric: an isolating device; for example: seasonal, habitat, behavioral, 
                      hybrid inviability, infertility - 1 point/with a maximum of 2 points;
   AN EXAMPLE OF A CHANGED GENE OR PHENOTYPE OR FREQUENCY OR ENVIRONMENTAL 
   CHANGE:
       1 point for each response, with a maximum of 2 points;













      EVOLUTION QUESTION 1981:			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
      Define, discuss, and given an example of how each of the following isolating    
       mechanisms contributes to speciation in organisms.
 	 A. Geographical barriers
  	 B. Ecological (including seasonal) isolation
 	 C. Behavioral isolation
 	 D. Polyploidy


STANDARDS: The concept of speciation was worthy of points, but a student could achieve a score of 15 without including a discussion of speciation. Any student who omitted any reference to any of the other four parts could achieve only a maximum of 12 points. Within these limits, a single point was given for every valid idea presented.

SPECIATION:
  1. 	Reproductive isolation by mutations and changes in gene pools.
  2. 	Definition of a new species.
  3. 	Adaptations (environmental and behavioral) may continue isolation 	
	after barriers no longer exist.

A. GEOGRAPHICAL BARRIERS:
  1. 	Types of barriers that can physically separate populations.
  2. 	Most speciation initiated by barriers.
  3. 	Genetic drift and/or founder effect contribute to isolation.
  4. 	Barriers may result in environments that produce different selective pressures.
  5. 	Example (actual or theoretical).

B. ECOLOGICAL ISOLATION:
  1. 	Allopatric populations can no longer occupy the same range due to adaptations 
      	to climate, food, etc.
  2. 	Sympatric populations can demonstrate habitat or niche isolation.
  3. 	Seasonal variations in fertility cycles or migratory patterns.
  4. 	Example (actual or theoretical).

C. BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION:
  1. 	Variation in courtship/auditory signals.
  2. 	Pheromones.
  3. 	Territoriality may lead to dispersal and establishment of peripheral populations.
  4. 	Example (actual or theoretical).

D. POLYPLOIDY:
  1. 	Definition.
  2. 	Cellular processes resulting in polyploidy.
  3. 	More commonly a speciation factor in plants.
  4. 	Autopolyploidy/allopolyploidy.
  5. 	Hybrid species formation often increases the survival rate.
  6. 	Polyploidy is "instant" speciation.
  7. 	Example (actual or theoretical). 
		  		









	
     EVOLUTION QUESTION  1982:			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
         Describe the special relationship between the two terms in each of the following pairs:
	A. Convergent evolution of organisms and Australia
	B. Blood groups and genetic drift
	C. Birds of prey and DDT


STANDARDS: 		(15  points maximum/1 point for each of the following)
  CONVERGENT EVOLUTION / AUSTRALIA
 __different phylogenetically - similar environment
 __selection pressures - niche adaptation
 __ecological equivalence
__analogous structures
__role of isolation - island populations
__continental drift
__marsupial vs. eutherian mammals
__example

  BLOOD GROUPS / GENETIC DRIFT
__co-dominant alleles - polymorphic = multiple genetic traits
__Hardy-Weinberg and small populations
__tend toward homozygosity
__change in gene frequency
__bottle-neck effect - founder effect
__selection pressures cause Genetic Drift - selective advantages
__examples of populations - Indians, Gypsies.....

  BIRDS OF PREY / DDT
__food chains - trophic levels - biomass
__pyramid of biomass diagram
__DDT persistent pesticide - chlorinated hydrocarbon
__biological manifestation
__resistance increases concentration
__hormone regulating Ca+2 destroyed
__thin or fragile eggs - decrease reproductive rate
		























     EVOLUTION QUESTION - 1984			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
	Describe the modern theory of evolution and discuss how it is supported by
	evidence from two of the following three areas:
		a.  Population genetics
		b.  Molecular biology
		c.   Comparative anatomy and embryology


STANDARDS:
	No paper may receive more than 12 points unless 2 sections from ABC and
	description of the Modern Theory are covered.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODERN EVOLUTION THEORY
__Synthesis Theory
__Darwin
__work of Darwin, contribution
__role of Natural Selection: 
__	survival
__	variability
__	overpopulation
__	gene perpetuation
* all of the above must have explanation
__effects of mutation
POPULATION GENETICS 				(6 points - max.)
__definition
__fusion of Darwin and Mendel
__Hardy-Weinberg 
__mathematical Model
__assumptions and explanation
__(OR negative/i.e. nonrandom mating, mutation, etc.)
__genetic drift
__types and example
__equilibrium or stability (loss = evolution)
__mechanism of speciation (isolation, barriers)
__coevolution
__adaptive radiation (gene pool)
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY				(6 points - max.)
__genetic variation from mutation
__types of mutation (addition, substitution, etc.)
__heterozygote vigor
__example
__comparative Biochemistry (DNA, cytochrome C, protein, amino acid sequence)
__carbohydrate metabolism
__common molecule/common function
__phylogenetic trees from amino acid sequence
__biochemistry techniques: hybridization of DNA, sequencing, etc.












COMPARATIVE ANATOMY/EMBRYOLOGY		(6 points - max.)
__definition/description
__convergent evolution
__divergent evolution
__example
__homologous/analogous
__vestigial organs
__example of above
__adaptive radiation (structural aspects)
__comparison of larval stages
__comparison of embryos
__common ancestor for close resemblance
__example (max 1):
	heart chambers
	gill slits/pharyngeal pouches
	tails
	cervical vertebrae
plus 1 for good explanation of revision of Haekel's theory









































    EVOLUTION QUESTION - 1986			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY

	Describe the process of speciation. Include in your discussion the 
	factors that may contribute to the maintenance of genetic isolation.
 

STANDARDS:

DESCRIBE PROCESS				(max. 9 points)
__Definition of speciation
__Differences in populations
__Barriers occur (various kinds)
__Barriers prevent inbreeding
__Mutations responsible for differences
__Differences (variations) result in populations
__Genetic drift occurs in small populations
__Founder effect (populations markedly different from parents)
__Differential selection pressures (environmental)
__Adaptive radiation, divergence
__Hardy-Weinberg Assumptions 
	(how population size, random mating affects speciation )
__Polyploidy (related to speciation)
__Allopolyploidy (two different species)
__Sympatry
__Allopatry

MAINTENANCE OF GENETIC ISOLATION		(max. 9 points)
__Mechanical isolation (structural, prevents mating)
__Seasonal isolation (different mating seasons)
__Habitat isolation (don't encounter each other)
__Behavioral isolation (courtship, mating behaviors differ, songs, etc.)
__Gamete isolation (gametes can't live in reproductive tract of other species)
__Hybrid sterility (vigorous, infertile hybrids)
__Hybrid elimination (hybrids fertile, not competitive)
__Hybrid weakness (weak, malformed hybrids, die young)
__Developmental incompatibility (embryo-parent)

	[Maximum for examples in either section - 2 additional points]

















     EVOLUTION QUESTION - 1989			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY

     	Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model.
      	A. 	Indicate the conditions under which allelic frequencies (p and q) 
	    	remain constant from one generation to the next.
  	B. 	Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and the 
	    	frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits, 
	    	of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. 
               		(In rabbits the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti 
	     	is due to a dominant allele, W.)
  	C. 	If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what 
	    	would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit 
	    	population after two generations?


STANDARDS:

A. CONDITIONS FOR HARDY-WEINBERG:
	H-W applies if:

	large population size (1 pt)	no genetic drift or founder effect

	random mating (1 pt)		no mating preference or inbreeding

	no mutation (1 pt)

	no selection (1 pt)			all genotypes have equal chance to reproduce

	no migration (1 pt)			no differential migration;	

						no gene flow among populations;
	_________________
	5 pts	      Max  3

B. PROBLEM
	formula (1 pt)			p2  + 2pq +  q 2 = 1

	relationship to genotypes		WW  Ww   ww or W = p
	            (1 pt)				 w = q
						definition of all terms of equation

	calculation to frequency		25,000/100,000 = frequency  ww = q2		  
                             (1 pt)				 = 0.25 or 1/4 or 25%

	allele frequencies (2 pts)		q =   .25   = .5 = frequency of w
						(1 pt if no explanation)

	formula (1 pt)			since p + q = 1
						p = 1 - q = .5
						frequency of W

	genotype frequencies		p2 = (.5)2 = .25 - WW 
	            (3 pts)			2pq = 2(.5) (.5) = .5 = Ww
						q2 = (.5)2 = .25 = ww
						or
						1 pt for frequencies with no explanation

						or

						   W      w
					       ____.5__.5___	
					   W  .5    .25   .25
					       ____________
					    w .5    .25   .25
					            (in context)
	_________________
	9 pts         Max  6

C. APPLICATIONS (WW genotypes die)

	genotype frequency changes	p2 decreases (does not disappear)
		(1 pt) 			or
						Ww decreases &/or ww increases
						or
						2 pq decreases &/or q2 increases
						or
					heterozygotes decrease &/or homozygotes increase

	allele frequency changes		p decreases 
					(but is not eliminated because of heterozygotes)
		(1 pt)					                
						q increases
Bonus:				Some discussion e.g.

	selection (1 pt)		death of homozygotes due to selection
					(decreased fitness)
					    	fitness = 0
					             	s = 1
	A rare student may know that in 2 generations p is halved i.e. p = .25, q = .75

	If n = # of generations = 2
	pn - po /(1 + npo) = .5/(1+2(.5)-.25 	

	p2 = .06; 2 pq = .38; q2 = .56  
	____________________
	4 pts		 Max  2





















            EVOLUTION QUESTION 1990:			L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY

	A.  Describe the differences between the terms in each of the following pairs.
		(1)  Coelomate versus  acoelomate body plan
		(2)  Protostome versus  deuterostome development
		(3)  Radial versus  bilateral symmetry
	B.  Explain how each of these pairs of features was important in constructing 
	       the phylogenetic tree shown below. Use specific examples from the tree 
      	       in your discussion.

					Chordata

								Arthropoda
									Annelida

		Echinodermata						Mollusca


								   Nematoda

									Rotifera

								         Platyhelminthes

			Cnidaria


			     		Porifera
STANDARDS:

A. (1)  COELOMATE VS. ACOELOMATE

1 -  Coelomate: internal body cavity lined with mesoderm
		(not sufficient to say: "true body cavity")
1 -  Acoelomate: lacking internal cavities altogether or having:
			a pseudocoelom (Nematoda and Rotifera)
			a spongocoel (Porifera)
			mesoglea (Cnidaria)
			a solid layer of mesoderm (Platyhelminthes)
[Max. = 2 / must define both for full credit]

















    (2)  PROTOSTOME VS. DEUTEROSTOME DEVELOPMENT

1 - Protostome: mouth develops near/at the blastopore or anus forms secondarily (later),
       OR featuring:	spiral cleavage (micromeres between macromeres);
			determinate/mosaic development (blastomere fate is 
			established at very early stages of development);
			mesoderm from cells that migrate into the blastocoel 
			near blastopore schizocoelous coelomation (internal split 
			in solid wedge of mesoderm that is independent of gut);
			trochophore larva;
1 - Deuterostome: anus develops near/at the blastopore or the mouth forms secondarily (later),
       OR featuring:	radial cleavage (micromeres directly above macromeres);
			indeterminate/regulative development (blastopore fate is 
			variable and not established until late in development);
			mesoderm arises from outpocketings of the gut;
			enterocoelous coelomation (outpocketings of gut);
			dipleurula larva
[Max. = 2 / must define both for full credit]

    (3) RADIAL VS. BILATERAL SYMMETRY
1 - Radial: several planes passing through the long or central axis can divide the 
       organism into similar parts.
1 - Bilateral: (only) one plane passing through the long axis divides the organism 
       into similar right and left sides -- exhibits cephalization.
1 - Echinoderms: bilaterally symmetrical larvae, but appear to have radially 
       symmetrical adult forms.
[Max. = 2]

B.  PHYLOGENETIC TREE
1 - for examples of contrasting pairs (phyla or organisms) using terms from above;
       answer here or in part A.
1 - for using above terms in explanation of why phyla are in separate groups 
       (or separate branches) of the tree.

1/1 -  Body symmetry (cephalization) permits separation of Porifera and Cnidaria
	(radially symmetrical) from other phyla (bilaterally symmetrical).
1/1 -  Coelomation permits separation of Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and Rotifera 
            from other phyla above Cnidaria: flatworms are acoelomate, whereas those 
            other than nematodes and rotifers are coelomate.
1/1 -  Origin of the mouth and anus permit separation of Echinodermata and Chordata
	(deuterostomes) from Arthropoda, Annelida, and Mollusca (protostomes).

	[Some include Platyhelminthes, Nematodes, and Rotifers as protostomes.]
1 - Nematodes and rotifers are grouped separately because both are pseudocoelomate.
1 - Phylogenetic trees based taxonomic relationships on homologous structures,
       patterns of embryonic development, and common ancestry.
[Max. = 6] 













      EVOLUTION QUESTION 1991:			    L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY

	Discuss how each of the following has contributed to the evolutionary 
	success of the organisms in which they are found.

		a.  Seeds
		b.  Mammalian placenta
		c.  Diploidy


STANDARDS:

SEEDS:		(Max of 4 points) 

__PROTECTION:  from drying, infection, mechanical injury (tough coat)
__FOOD:  Source: cotyledons, endosperm. Result: more pre-germination 
      (embryonic) development, i.e. radicle, hypocotyl, epicotyl, etc.
__DISPERSAL:  examples include fruit, hooks, animals, wind, water, etc.
__DORMANCY:  timing of germination increases competitive success 
	            (possible reduction in overcrowding)
__ADAPTATION:  to or Colonization of new land environments
__OPTIONS FOR VARIATION IN NUMBER of seeds vs. parental investment
__HORMONE production/internal regulation

PLACENTA:	(Max of 4 points)

__EXCHANGES of food & O2 and/or waste or CO2 (description of placental structures)
__HOMEOSTATIC environment (stable/temperature or chemicals; amniotic fluid)
__IMMUNITY (antibodies cross placenta)
__PREDATION reduced
__MORE DEVELOPED organism at time of birth (retained longer)
__SURVIVAL CHANCES increased, therfore fewer offspring needed
__MOBILITY and independence of parents during fetal development
__DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNALS:  hormone regulation/communication via mother-fetus 
      connection

DIPLOIDY:	(Max of 4 points)
__VARIATION through fertilization/syngamy/two parents
__VARIATION through meiosis/crossing over/recombination/
       independent assortment/segregation
__MODES OF INHERITANCE:  co-dominance, polyploidy
__RESULT OF VARIATION is potential for adaptation
__MASKS MUTATION or hides variability/heterozygosity/recessive alleles retained 
       in gene pool
__HYBRID VIGOR provides certain advantages
__BACK-UP set of chromosomes for gene replacement/repair/conversion
__LIFE CYCLES/alternation of generations

OVERVIEW:	(1 point)
__DEFINITION of evolutionary success in terms of survival of fittest or natural 
      selection







      EVOLUTION QUESTION 1992:			L.PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
	Evolution is one of the unifying concepts of modern biology. 

	a.  Explain the mechanisms that lead to evolutionary change. 

	b.  Describe how scientists use each of the following as evidence for evolution.
		(1)   Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
		(2)   Comparative biochemistry
		(3)   The fossil record
	

STANDARDS:
A.  (Max 7 points) Explain the mechanisms that lead to evolutionary 
     change.
	The Big Picture:
	(1 point for any of the following)
__	Punctuated Equilibrium, mass extinction, etc.
__	Definition of Evolution - change through time
__	Mutation - change in genes yields genetic variation
__ 	Natural selection / selective pressure (Darwin)
		Genetic variation exists
		Over production
		Competition - survival of the fittest (Best genes)
		Survivors reproduce (Best genes to offspring)
__	Adaptive/non-adaptive nature of variation

	Specific Mechanisms:
	(1 point, no elaboration / 1 point - elaboration of mechanisms)
	Population level mechanisms:
__	Genetic drift/change in allele frequencies in small population
__	Founder effect/bottleneck
__	Migration/gene flow in populations
__	Non-random mating/inbreeding
__	Hardy-Weinberg disruption leads to evolution
__	Speciation: prezygotic/postzygotic isolating mechanisms
__	Examples: seasonal/behavioral/temporal
__	Chromosomal abnormalities/polyploidy/change in chromosome number
__	Development of genetic variation through: recombination/cross-over/
	independent assortment/meiosis

B.  (Max 6 points) 
     Describe how scientists use each of the following as evidence for 
     evolution:
     (1)  Bacterial resistance to antibiotics (max 2 points)
__	Genetic variation/mutants
__	Selection for resistance
__	Survival to reproduce
__	Transduction/transformation/"sex" reproduction/DNA plasmid transfer









     (2)  Comparative biochemistry (max 2 points)
__	Common biochemical pathways (as evidence for evolution)
__	Respiration Examples: electron flow, proton pump, chemiosmosis, Krebs cycle
__	ATP, etc.
__	Photosynthesis - light reactions, Calvin cycle
__	Proteins - Examples: Amino acid sequence, isoenzymes, cyctochrome C,
			         hemoglobin (addn'l point for elaboration), insulin
__	Cell Structure based on similarity in molecular composition

     (3)  The fossil record (max 2 points)
__	Stratification of fossils as evidence of change
__	Examples with description of change:   (2 points possible)
	   Humans, Horses, Vascular Plants, Shellfish
__	Limb Homology
__	Elaboration of example
__	Chronology - radioactive dating
__	Cladistics/phenology
__	Extinction of Species








































      EVOLUTION QUESTION 1994:			L.PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY

     Genetic variation is the raw material for evolution.
     a.  	Explain three cellular and/or molecular mechanisms that introduce variation 
	into the gene pool of a plant or animal population.
     b.  	Explain the evolutionary mechanisms that can change the composition of the gene pool.


	2 points maximum for each category
		1 point for general explanation and 1 point for elaboration

	The second point may be earned with an elaboration or an explained example.

PART A (6 POINTS MAX)			PART B (6 POINTS MAX)
Eplain three cellular and/or molecular	Explain the evolutionary mechanisms
mechanisms that introduce variation	that can change the composition of the
into the gene pool of a plant or animal	gene pool.
population.
						1+1	Natural selection explanation
1	Mutation is a change in the DNA		Minimum:
							Differential reproductive success
1	Mutagenesis - explanation		(Survival of the fittest not enough)
							Elaboration:
1+1	Point mutations				           Adaptation viewed as a "result"
1+1	Substitution					           Adaptive radiation
1+1	Frame shift					           Importance of variation
	   Insertion					           Occurs in populations
	   Deletion					Example
1+1	Editing error (repair)
						1+1	Gene Flow
1+1	 Chromosomal mechanisms			Minimum:
1+1	Translocation (Transposition)			Immigration or emigration of alleles
1+1	Inversion					Elaboration:
1+1	Deletion					Outbreeding
1+1	Duplication					Geographic isolation
1+1	Crossing over					Barriers - addition/removal
	(new combinations of linked alleles)		geography/temporal/reproductive
1+1	Aneuploidy (non-disjunction)			behavioral
1+1	Polyploidy					Example

1+1	Other Mechanisms			1+1	Genetic Drift (Neutral Selection)
1+1	Transposable elements			Minimum:
1+1	Virus induced changes				Non representative, random change
1+1	Genetic engineering				in allelic frequency - linked with small
							population size
1+1	Sexual reproduction			Elaboration:
	Meiosis as a reshuffling mechanism		Bottleneck effect, founder effect
	Recombination of genes (alleles)		Effect of a small population
	Independent assortment			Example
	Random fertilization				
	Cross breeding			1+1	Mutation
	(Elaboration point is for gene pool		Minimum:
	connection not for individual variation)		(change in genes or alleles in context
							as an evolutionary mechanism)
							Elaboration:
							Randomness
							Non-directionality
							Change in phenotypic traits
							Gametic not somatic change
							Example

						1+1	Assortive mating
							Minimum:
							non-random / choice
							Elaboration:
							Sexual Selection
							Artificial Selection
							In-breeding
							Example















































      EVOLUTION QUESTION 1994:			L.PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY

	Select two of the following three pairs and discuss the evolutionary relationships 
	between the two members of each pair you have chosen. In your discussion
	include structural adaptations and their functional significance.

	a.  	Green Algae...Vascular Plants
	b.  	Prokaryotes....Eukaryotes
	c.	Amphibians.....Reptiles


	The question was designed to elicit a wide knowledge of organismal structure and function considered specifically in an evolutionary framework. The question required that structural adaptations, tied to their functional significance, be included, but did not restrict the student's response to such discussion. Points, therefore, were also provided for discussion of: structural adaptation not linked to functional significance; differences in functional ability not tied to structural difference base; and, appropriately, a discussion of evidence which exists to support the relationship stated. 

Maximum: 	6 points total for each pair discussed
		3 points maximum for unlinked items
		2 points / each linked item

PAIR A:  GREEN ALGAE ->  VASCULAR PLANTS 	(Maximum: 6 points)

I.   Evolutionary Overview:  Aquatic ->  Terrestrial

II.  Evolutionary Relationships / Evidence:
	A.)  similar pigments (similar chlorophylls, chlorophyll b)
	B.)  similar food storage compounds, carbohydrates (starch)
	C.)  similar flagellated cells (whiplash type)
	D.)  Other:  cell wall composition, chloroplast anatomy, cytokinesis, cell plate

III. Evolutionary Adaptations				Functional Significance
	1.)  cuticle					1.)  prevents desiccation
	2.)  xylem and phloem				2.)  water and mineral /
							        organic transport
	3.)  stomata					3.)  gas exchange / transpiration
	4.)  lignified tissues / xylem			4.)  support
	5.)  undifferentiated -> differentiated		5.)  functional specialization
	        tissues (roots, stems, leaves)		        (division of labor)
	6.)  sterile jacket				6.)  prevents desiccation
	7.)  flagellated ->  nonflagellated cells		7.)  terrestrial fertilization
	8.)  spores ->  seeds				8.)  protection / dormancy / food
	9.)  haploid ->  diploid				9.)  variation
               10.)  no embryo ->  embryo		               10.)  protection / nourishment
               11.)  homospory ->  heterospory	               11.)  variation










			1994 STANDARDS - QUESTION #4 - page 2 of 2

PAIR B.  PROKARYOTES ->  EUKARYOTES  (Maximum:  6 points)

I.       Evolutionary  Overview: Endosymbiotic &/or Autogenous Theory
						(explanation of)

II.      Evolutionary  Relationships / Evidence:
	A.  ribosomes (in prokaryotes and in organelles)
	B.  nucleic acids (in prokaryotes and in organelles
	C.  other; see addenda

III.    Evolutionary  Adaptations*				Functional Significance
      	1.)  nuclear membrane				1.)  compartmentalization
	2.)  histones/nucleosomes			2.)  packaging of DNA
	3.)  cytoskeleton				3.)  movement/support/etc.
	4.)  membranous organelles			4.)  specialization
	5.)  multicellularity				5.)  complexity
	6.)  spindle apparatus				6.)  necessary for sexual
	7.)  membrane steroids				       reproduction (meiosis)
	8.)  other; see addenda			7.)  membrane stability

PAIR C.  AMPHIBIANS ->  REPTILES (Maximum:  6 points)

I.       Evolutionary  Overview:  Aquatic  ->  Terrestrial

II.      Evolutionary  Relationships / Evidence:
	A.)  anatomical (homologous structures, 3 chambered heart, appendicular structures)
	B.)  fossil record:  common amphibian ancestor, Labyrinthodon, Devonian period

III.    Evolutionary  Adaptations*				Functional Significance
	1.)  moist -> keratinized (scales) skin		1.)  prevents desiccation
	2.)  3 chambers -> septated ventricle		2.)  less mixing of oxy,deoxy blood
							        better O2 delivery
	3.)  urea Ö>  uric acid				3.)  water conservation
	4.)  absence/presence, apparatus		4.)  temperature regulation /
	        for response to environmental		        poikilothermy -> ectothermy
	        temperature				         	(cold-blooded
	5.)  other:					5.)  see addenda

		¡ skeletal system				¡  excretory system
		¡  nervous systme				¡  respiratory system
	6.)  jelly coat -> amniotic egg			6.)  prevents desiccation
	7.)  lack of ->  copulatory organs		7.)  internal fertilization
	8.)  metamorphosis -> no larval stage		8.)  adaptation to terrestrial environment

* citation of more advanced character alone was allowed;
   citation of more primitive character alone received no credit;







		1994 STANDARDS - QUESTION #4 - Addenda page #1

PAIR A:  GREEN ALGAE ->  VASCULAR PLANTS

Part II.  Evidence for Evolutionary Relationships
	¡Similar pigments (similar chlorophylls, chlorophyll b)
	¡Similar food storage compounds, carbohydrates (starch)
	¡Similar flagellated cells (whiplash type)
	¡Similar cell wall composition (cellulose)
	¡Similar cytokinesis (cell plate, phragmoplast)
	¡Similar chloroplast design

Part III. Structural Adaptations
	¡no cuticle -> cuticle
	¡no vascular tissue -> xylem and phloem
	¡absence of stomata -> presence of stomata
	¡absence of lignin -> presence of lignin
	¡lack of specialization/little differentiation -> organs (roots, stems, leaves)
	¡absence of sterile jacket -> presence of sterile jacket
	¡flagellated reproductive cells -> reproductive cells not flagellated
	¡spore ->  seed
	¡"N" dominance (gametophyte) -> "2N" dominance (sporphyte)
	¡no embryo -> embryo with protection
	¡homospory -> heterospory

Part III. Functional Significance
	¡desiccation
	¡transport of water/minerals and organic molecules
	¡gas exchange / transpiration
	¡support in the absence of water
	¡division of labor (increase in efficiency, adaptation to a terrestrial environment
		(less CO2, less H2O, more radiant energy)
	¡mechanical protection and to prevent desiccaiton (gametangia)
	¡dispersal of reproductory materials in a terrestrial environment
	¡food for developing embryo, protection, dormancy
	¡increases v ariation and diversity
	¡feeding and protecting the next generation
	¡increases variation and diversity


















		1994 STANDARDS - QUESTION #4 - Addenda page #2

PAIR B:  PROKARYOTES  ->  EUKARYOTES

Part II. Evidence that supports Endosymbiotic Theory:
	("organelles" denotes mitochondria &/or chloroplasts)
	¡ribosomes are found in organelles/organelles contain own synthetic machinery
	¡organelle ribosomes are of a prokaryotic type (30S, 50S, 70S polysomes)
	¡antibiotic effects similar on prokaryotic and organelle ribosomes
	¡r-RNA sequences similar in prokaryotes and organelles
	¡DNA is found in organelles
	¡DNA is circular; supercoiled; not associated with histones; 
	¡DNA not arranged in nucleosome packages	
	¡organelles = size of prokaryotic cells
	¡organelles arise only from pre-existing organelles
	¡organelle reproduction similar to binary fission
	¡oxygenic photosynthesis present in certain prokaryotes
	¡chlorophyll a present in certain prokaryotes
	¡chlorphyll be (as well as chlorophyll a) present in certain prokaryotes
	¡inner organelle membranes and prokaryotic cell membranes have some similar transport
	and enzyme systems	
	¡fossil evidence: prokaryotes: 3.5 x 109  years, eukaryotes: 1.5 x  109  B.P.
			evidence of atomspheric oxygen:  2.5 x 109 year B.P.

Part II. Evidence that supports Autogenous Theory:
	¡association of the nuclear membrane, ER and plasma membrane
	¡fossil evidence as above

Part III. Structural Adaptations
	("prokaryotes" defined as eubacteria)
	¡nucleoid / nucleus
	¡lack of histones (divalent cations instead) / histones
	¡DNA packaging by supercoiling / DNA wrapping around histones
	¡lack of cytoskeleton / cytoskeleton
	¡membranous organelles
	¡unicellular, plates, filament clusters / true multicellularity
	¡spindle apparatus
	¡absence / presence of membrane steroids (i.e. cholesterol)
	¡peptidoglycan cell wall / cell walls of other composition
	¡circular DNA / linear DNA
	¡one chromosome per cell / more than one chromosome per cell
	¡30S, 50S, 70S ribosomes / 40S, 60S, 80S ribosomes
		(30S, 50S, 70S ribosomes found in organelles)
	¡polycistronic m-RNA / monocistronic m-RNA
	¡absence / presence of cap and tail on m-RNA
	¡typically 1-5 microns / 10-100 microns diameter
	¡flagellar design for rotary motion vs. "9 + 2" design for whipping motion /
	flagellum not surrounded by cell membrane / surrounded by cell membrane /
	diameter of prokaryotic flagellum / diameter of eukaryotic flagellum (diameter
	of prokaryotic flagellum approximately equals the diameter of eukaryotic
	microtubule)



		1994 STANDARDS - QUESTION #4 - Addenda page #3
Part III. Functional Significance
	¡nucleus provides a microenvironment for RNA and DNA polymerases,
		allows separation of transcription and translation
	¡stability / packaging of larger amounts of DNA / finer control of
		transcriptional regulation vs. rapidity of transcription
	¡movement, orientation of organelles; cytoplasmic streaming,
		amoeboid movement, phagocytosis
	¡specialization of function (within a cell)
	¡specialization of function (between cells)
	¡distribution of large amounts of DNA to daughter cells
	¡membrane strength in eukaryotic groups without cell walls
	¡size of cell that can be protected by a single molecular wrap / construction of cellulosic
	and other eukaryotic cell walls places no demand on cell supplies of nitrogen
	¡only small amounts of DNA can be packaged in supercoiled circles
	¡allows transcription and replication of large amounts of DNA
	¡coincidence of the original endosymbiotic event
	¡finer control of translation vs. rapidity of response to rapidly changing environment
	¡protection of m-RNA / transport of m-RNA out of the nucleus
	¡larger size permits greater complexity of cellular structure
	¡eukaryotic design permits more variability in movement, is necessary for movement
	of larger cells

PAIR C:  AMPHIBIANS ->  REPTILES
Part I.  Evidence for Evolutionary Relationships
	¡anatomical similarities of recent derviation only (structural similarities at branch point only)
		¡three-chambered heart
		¡tetrapod character
		¡lungs
	¡fossil record (common amphibian ancestor, Labyrinthodon, Devonian Period) 
Part II.  Structural Adaptations
	¡keratinized (scales) skin
	¡septated ventricle / four chambers
	¡uric acid
	¡apparatus for response to environmental temperature (parietal gland)
	¡skeletal system modifications
		¡articulated vertebrae
		¡reposition of appendages from lateral to ventral side
	¡muscular system modifications: muscular tissue in dermis
	¡respiratory system modifications
		¡development of thoracic / abdominal septum
		¡development of nasal cavity
		¡increased surface area of the lungs (alveoli)
	¡excretory system modifications
		¡uric acid vs. urea
		¡metanephric vs. mesonephric kidneys
			¡ureter, separation of excretory / reproductive componenets
			¡collecting tubules, increased length of loop of Henle
		¡nervous system modifications
			¡increased sophistication of the limbic system
			¡presence of the parietal glands / temperature control site
		¡copulatory organs
		¡amniotic (cleidoic/shelled) egg
		¡no larval stage

		1994 STANDARDS - QUESTION #4 - Addenda page #4


PAIR C:  AMPHIBIANS ->  REPTILES continued

Part III. Functional Significance
	¡prevents desiccation
	¡less mixing of oxy/deoxygenated blood, better oxygen delivery
	¡water conservation
	¡temperature regulation / poikilothermy to ectothermy
	¡skeletal system modifications
		¡agility / flexibility
		¡weight support / locomotive speed
	¡muscular system modificaitons
		¡increased insulation / protection / motility (snakes)
	¡respiratory system modifications
		¡ability to generate negative pressure breathing
		¡ability to breathe with food in mouth / ability to warm and humidify respired air
		¡increased gas exchange
	¡excretory system modifications
		¡decrease water loss in terrestrial environment
		¡increased ability to reabsorb water
	¡nervous system modifications
		¡increased ability to respond / adapt to environmental conditions
		¡ability for behavioral modification of body temperature
	¡internal fertilizaiton
	¡adaptations to terrestrial environment
	¡embryo: mechanical protection, food source, water conservation, waste elimination