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Chrétien de Troyes: Lancelot Extremely little is known of the life of Chrétien de Troyes. It has been ascertained that he wrote in the latter part of the 12th century and he is recognized almost solely for his five Arthurian legends: Eric and Enide (1170), Cliges (1176), Lancelot / Le Chevalier de la Charette / The Knight of the Cart, Yvain / Le Chevalier au Lion / The Knight With the Lion (most likely written simultaneously with Lancelot sometime between 1177and 1181), and Perceval / Le Cont du Graal / The Story of the Grail (1181-1191).
Of his other works, all that is known comes from his other romances, particularly the beginning lines of Cliges: “The man who wrote Eric and Enide, translated Ovid’s Commandments and his Art of Love, composed The Shoulder Bite, and wrote of King Mark and the blonde Iseult, and about the metamorphoses of the hoopoe, the swallow, and the nightingale…” (Chrétien 87). Most scholarship agrees that Chrétien was either born in Whether Chrétien’s texts were completely original, or whether they are merely the only ‘romance’ texts that have survived the Middle Ages remains unclear. Nevertheless, he is acknowledged by most scholars to be the “father of Arthurian literature.” W. W. Comfort comments on Chrétien’s originality in his introduction to the texts: Chrétien’s originality, then, consists in his portrayal of the social ideal of the French aristocracy in the twelfth century. So far as we know he was the first to create in the vulgar tongues a vast court, where men and women lived in conformity with the rules of courtesy, where the truth was told, where generosity was open-handed, where the weak and the innocent were protected by men who dedicated themselves to the cult of honor and to the quest of a spotless reputation. (Comfort x-xi) Two of Chrétien’s romances, Lancelot and Perceval, are left incomplete by the author and are finished by another writer. It is not clear why Chrétien did not finish Lancelot himself. Some scholarship has suggested, however, that he merely could not bring the story to a close, and thus enlisted the help of another writer: As Chrétien composes his romances, he seems to have more and more trouble with the endings – or rather, we should say that ending the action, the series of adventures generated by the plot, becomes more and more problematic for Chrétien’s characters, for his narrator, and thus for his public. Lancelot marks an important stage in this development, a special case within Chrétien’s work, one which identifies the problem of closure in romance narrative…Though we do not know precisely why or under what circumstances Chrétien asked Godefroi to finish Lancelot, the relay of tasks does emphasize how difficult it is to end this romance. (Bruckner 162-163) The final lines of Lancelot tell us that Godefroi de Leigni composed the ending of the text with the consent of Chrétien. Though the poem is completed by another author, the story is still attributed to Chrétien, as he did write over a third of the text. Perceval, on the other hand, is not credited so much to Chrétien, as he only wrote about 9,000 lines of the 32,000 in the poem. He is believed to have died while in the process of writing this final romance. His works have been translated and adapted numerous times and are still discussed and analyzed today. POSSIBLE LITERARY, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Most scholarship accepts that Chrétien borrowed from previous literary figures, such as Wace and Geoffrey of Monmouth, when constructing his stories. Unfortunately, it is not clear what other sources he might have drawn from; but, there is a seemingly definite tone of Celtic mythology in the romances, particularly in Lancelot. (Some examples of such Celtic mythology in the text are the Rather than unqualifiedly attribute to Chrétien this important literary convention, one should bear in mind that all his poems imply familiarity on the part of his readers with the heroes of the court of which he speaks. One would suppose that other stories, told before his versions, were current. Some critics would go so far as to maintain that Chrétien came toward the close, rather than at the beginning, of a A similar romance to Chrétien’s Lancelot was composed around the year 1200 in This French source, unfortunately, has been lost. But just as it is possible at least partially to reconstruct many lost episodes from the Tristan et Isuet of Thomas d’Angleterre by referring to the Middle High German version of this poem by Gottfried von Straburg, so, logically, one might venture to reconstruct Ulrich’s French source, the Proto-Lanzelet - - a poem which may well have antedated the Chevalier de la Charrette and, consequently, could have been known to Chrétien. (http://www.princeton.edu/%7elancelot/romance.html) Unfortunately, no one will ever know for sure if there were prior sources to Chrétien, though this is the wide held belief, and what exactly those sources were, and how much of an influence they had on the texts themselves. According to Urban T. Holmes there were three significant factors that occurred in the 12th century that gave rise to the Arthurian romances: Three dominating spheres of influence made possible the rise of the romance form – and incidentally of Chrétien de Troyes and his Arthurian themes. These were the great spread of territory under the Anglo-Norman king of England; the ‘look’ towards Germany, Byzantium, and Sicily which had developed in Eastern France (including Champagne); and the immense rise of the schools and other clerical activity in the cathedral centers; this last is the climax of what is called the Twelfth Century Renaissance. (Holmes 27) It is almost certain that Chrétien was around the courts and the aristocracy frequently. In the prologue of Lancelot, he accredits his “lady of Both Marie and Philippe are part of the royalty and high aristocracy that encouraged the emergence of courtly romance: the English court of the Plantagenets, the courts of the counts of It is apparent that Chrétien circled with members of the aristocracy, which could have largely influenced his subject matter within the texts. It is also clear that in the twelfth century there were a limited number of thematic issues which were being explored: A French narrative poet of the twelfth century had three categories of subject matter from which to choose: legends connected with the history of France (matière de France), legends connected with Arthur and other Celtic heroes (Matière de Bretagne), and stories from the history or mythology of Greece and Rome, current in Latin and French translations (matière de Rome la grant). (Comfort viii) That Chrétien chose to write of the Arthurian legend, then, is not entirely unusual, or as previously noted, completely innovative. Summary (taken from http://www.princeton.edu/%7elancelot/romance.html) The Episodes (as given in Foulet-Uitti) 1. (vv. 1-30) Prologue: Chrétien states that he has received the subject and the idea for his romance from Countess Marie de Champagne. 2. (vv. 31-198) The rash boon: King Arthur loses his Queen to the evil knight Méléagant because he had rashly promised his seneschal Keu that he would give him anything in his power to give. Keu demands the right to defend Guenevere; he fails in this task. 3. (vv. 199-322) The abduction of the Queen: With great reluctance Guenevere departs with Keu; Gauvain leaves in order to look for them. En route he encounters Keu's horse and another knight who seeks Guenevere. The other knight is Lancelot du Lac (whose name, however, is not revealed until v. 3676). 4. (vv. 323-586) The infamous cart: After the slightest hesitation Lancelot climbs into a cart of the sort used to transport criminals and driven by a dwarf. Joined by Gauvain, the three arrive in a town where Gauvain is fêted but Lancelot is mocked as the "knight of the cart." At the residence of a young lady who offers hospitality to the two knights, Lancelot successfully undergoes the test of the flaming lance. On the following day he observes the passage of a troop that includes Méléagant, Guenevere, and a wounded knight (Keu). 5. (vv. 587-713) The two perilous bridges: Lancelot and Gauvain encounter a maiden who describes to them two bridges which lead to the Kingdom of Gorre, the Sword Bridge and the Underwater Bridge. The two companions take leave of one another. 6. (vv. 714-937) The Knight of the Ford: Lancelot defeats a knight who has been posted in order to defend a ford against all comers. 7. (vv. 938-1292) The Immodest Damsel: Lancelot spends the second night of his quest in the castle of a maiden who vainly seeks to seduce him (and who may well be a fairy). 8. (vv. 1293-1511) Guenevere's comb: Riding side by side, Lancelot and his previous night's hostess find a comb in which are entwined a few shimmering golden hairs. When he is informed by the maiden that the hairs are Guenevere's, Lancelot almost faints with emotion. 9. (vv. 1512-1840) The importunate suitor: Approached by a young knight who demands that he deliver over his companion, Lancelot refuses; but no combat ensues. 10. (vv. 1841-2022) The prophetic tomb: Still in the company of the Immodest Damsel, Lancelot reaches a monastery in the cemetery of which he discovers the tombstones of Yvain, Gauvain and his own. The last of these stones bears an inscription stating that he who lifts up this slab will free the captives taken from Logres to Gorre. Lancelot lifts up the stone without any difficulty. He and the Immodest Damsel go their separate ways. 11. (vv. 2023-2266) The rocky passage: Lancelot spends his third night at the dwelling of a vavassor whose two sons ask to join him. On the morrow they force their way through a narrow, rocky passage. 12. (vv. 2267-2518) The revolt of the people of Logres: Lancelot and his two companions take part in a battle waged against the inhabitants of Gorre by the people of Logres. 13. (vv. 2519-2955) Punishing an arrogant knight: In the evening of the following day Lancelot is obliged to fight a knight who insults him with extreme arrogance. At the insistent request of a maiden who claims to have been betrayed by the knight, Lancelot beheads him and offers the severed head to the offended maiden. 14. (vv. 2956-3155) The Sword Bridge: On the fifth day of his quest Lancelot arrives finally at the 15. (vv. 3156-3490) Bademagu and Méléagant: Both the father and the son witness Lancelot's extraordinary exploit. King Bademagu deeply admires Lancelot's bravery; Méléagant is angry at his adversary's success. 16. (vv. 3491-3941) Lancelot combats Méléagant: While Guenevere looks on, Lancelot combats Méléagant; he comes close to losing because he cannot stop gazing upon her, but he collects himself in time. Bademagu is obliged to ask Guenevere to intercede on behalf of his son so that he may be spared death. 17. (vv. 3942-4124) Guenevere's coldness: To everyone's great surprise Guenevere refuses to meet with Lancelot. Later she explains that she cannot forgive his hesitation in climbing into the cart, since doing so would (presumably) bring him more quickly to her aid. 18. (4125-4414) Lancelot attempts to hang himself: Lancelot departs in search of Gauvain. Rumors of his death reach Bademagu's court; Guenevere is struck to the quick by this news. Her pallor and her stricken state give rise to the news that she has died. When Lancelot learns this, he attempts suicide. But when he learns that the Queen is still alive, his hope is rekindled. 19. (4415-4920) The night of love (Méléagant's accusations): Guenevere explains to Lancelot the reasons for her previous coldness toward him. She grants him a rendez-vous for the following night. On the morning following the night the lovers spend together Méléagant discovers bloodstains on the Queen's sheets. These stains are caused by Lancelot's bleeding after he has bent open the bars on the windows of Guenevere's bedroom, but Méléagant falsely ascribes them to the wounded Keu who, he says, has committed adultery with the Queen. 20. (vv. 4921-5063) Lancelot combats Méléagant a second time: Guenevere swears that she has not committed the crime of which she has been accused, and she asks Lancelot to defend her honor. The ensuing judicial combat is interrupted by Bademagu. 21. (vv. 5064-5378) Lancelot's disappearance: Once again Lancelot departs in search of Gauvain. A wicked dwarf causes him to fall into the hands of Méléagant. Meanwhile, having received a counterfeit letter ostensibly written by Lancelot affirming that he has returned to Arthur's court, Guenevere, Keu and Gauvain leave for Logres. 22. (vv. 5379-6076) The tourney at Noauz: With the connivance of his jailer's wife (the jailer is Méléagant's seneschal), Lancelot participates in a tourney presided over by Guenevere. He easily overcomes all his opponents. In order to reassure herself that he is really Lancelot and that he loves her, the Queen orders him to let himself be defeated by all his adversaries. To everyone's surprise, Lancelot obeys her. 23. (vv. 6077-6166) Lancelot imprisoned: Keeping his promise to his jailer's wife, Lancelot returns to Gorre. He is locked up in a specially walled up tower where he is to be kept in perpetuity. (It is at this point that Godefroi de Leigni takes over writing the romance.) 24. (vv. 6167-6393) Bademagu counsels his son: Méléagant refuses to listen to his father who advises him to make peace with Lancelot. 25. (vv. 6394-6728) Lancelot's liberation: Bademagu's daughter (to whom Lancelot had presented the head of the arrogant knight) searches for and finds the tower in which Lancelot is imprisoned. She frees him and nurses him until he recovers his strength. 26. (vv. 6729-7119) The death of Méléagant: For the third time Lancelot meets Méléagant in one-on-one combat. He defeats him and cuts off his head. 27. (vv. 7120-7134) Epilogue: Godefroi de Leigni informs us that he has composed the final sections of the Charrette with the full approval of Chrétien de Troyes. The quest is the motif that is most usually employed throughout the Arthurian romances. The structure of the quest enables Chrétien to sufficiently display the prominent themes of courtly literature/Arthurian literature, and thus is used continually: In order to weave together into a coherent narrative the obtrusive merveilles, Chrétien utilized the motifs of quest and encounter (adventure). His design is a fascinating skein of aventures and merveilles, often with no more cognitive significance then one finds in fairy tales. (Kelly 28) There are five key elements of a quest: (1) a questor, (2) the destination, (3) a stated reason to go, (4) challenges and trials along the way, (5) and the real reason to go. Chrétien not only fulfills each of these steps in entirety in Lancelot, but he does so throughout the other romances as well. Once it is determined that a text employs the quest motif, it is easy to locate the five elements within the plot. First, Lancelot is, without a doubt, the questor in The Knight of the Cart – it can be argued that Gawain is also a questor but for all intensive purposes, to better illustrate the five steps of the quest, we will stick with Lancelot. Second, Lancelot’s dest! ! ! ination is Gorre. Third, his stated reason to go on the quest is to free the imprisoned Queen. Fourth, he suffers and endures through numerous challenges along the way, such as his shame in entering the infamous cart, his fight and defeat of the knight of the ford, his quandary with the immodest damsel, his trial in surviving the rocky passage, his fight for survival against the people of Logres, his confrontation with an arrogant knight, his struggle in crossing the sword bridge, and finally his fight and defeat of Méléagant in combat. And at last, his real reason to go is because he is completely and wholly devoted to Guinevere, as she is the love of his life. ! ! ! Textual, Thematic, and Critical Issues Convention is used repeatedly throughout the Arthurian texts and throughout medieval literature as a whole. The conventionality of the romance enriches the plots of Chrétien textually, as they allow credibility and authenticity of the genre. Matilda Bruckner acknowledges the familiarity of conventions within medieval literature, as well as why Chrétien might have chosen to really reinforce conventionality within his romances: While all medieval literature operates within a traditional context that emphasizes conventionality, repetitions and variations in romance are particularly self-conscious. They signal explicitly its status as a collection of conventions to be (re)invented by the particular combinations of a given romance. Chrétien thus establishes his credentials for the courtly public – a public already alerted to romance potentials – by introducing recognizable elements: his choice of topics puts the Chevalier de la Charrette into a general framework that points, on the one hand, to other literary texts (e.g., contemporary romances) and, on the other hand, to an historical audience, the commissioners and consumers of courtly romances.&n!
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Moreover, Chrétien’s use of conventions inevitably marks his own text as the same as others and yet quite different, his own version of a common store. (Bruckner 133-134) The conventions employed by Chrétien in Lancelot are seen throughout the text and the repetition of the themes and motifs as well. Some examples of these are the round table, the Queen and her lover, the grail, the questing knight, reoccurring adventures and trials, the evil dwarf and the midget knight, the lone maiden in the forest, the enchanted castle and the hospitable host. One of the most significant thematic issues in Chrétien’s romance is identity. Throughout all five romances, the identity of the characters is either concealed or revealed in ways that add extra meaning and significance to the text. Lancelot’s name is not revealed until nearly half way through the plot. He continually denies other character’s access to his identity, and this further increases the mysteriousness of the ‘knight of the cart.’ What then does the concealment of his name imply? Matilda Bruckner looks at this intriguing use of identity!
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essay: Lancelot’s physical appearance is clearly of little importance for his identity in the Charrette. What matters is the relation between his name – or the act of naming him – and his actions. The use of anonymity, as well as the perceptions of other characters, exerts a powerful influence on that relationship. They also suggest that Lancelot’s identity is not static: though it contains certain givens – Lancelot’s heroism is part of his character – it also reflects a process of discovery, both ours and the knight’s. (Bruckner 145) Through Lancelot’s anonymity, he is able to at once conceal his identity from the public and private realms. He does not worry about his reputation, so much as his need and desire to reach Guinevere. He conceals his identity, even when it would serve him well to let it be known, so that he will not be bothered with the hindrances that would befall him if the public was aware of his knightly stature: By withholding his name, he cuts off current actions from past reputation and prevents them, at least temporarily, from being added together under his own name. While he remains incognito, these anonymous actions are neither credited nor debited to his account…His orientation is forward: with each new action unencumbered by expectation, he (re)invents his identity as the single knight capable of saving the Queen. (Bruckner 147) Lancelot is motivated wholly by his love and devotion to the Queen, thus it is of little or no importance to him what others choose to make of him and his identity. He uses anonymity, once again, at the tournament he attends. His test of true love to Guinevere is in his willingness to lose the battles and suffer shame. This would be nearly impossible if the other characters knew who he was, as his identity would prevent the others from scorning him. Thus, once again, his concealment of his identity is a reflection of his love for Guinevere and functions as a tool to steer him towards the ultimate goal of his quest – the love and devotion of the Queen. Love is obviously another huge thematic element working within the text. Lancelot is guided wholly and completely by his love to Guinevere. Throughout the text, it is apparent that Lancelot’s love is far greater than any of the other characters, and the others almost pale in comparison to the devoted Lancelot. Whereas in some of the other romances prowess is elevated above love, the relationship between the two are somewhat skewed in this romance. Lancelot’s love is stressed far more than his desire or need for prowess: Love and prowess may indeed appear as opposites, as when Reason bids him to avoid stepping into the Cart, or when fighting ‘au noauz’ evokes jeers and scorn. This opposition is, however, an optical distortion, a misunderstanding of reality. Love and prowess are both important systems of value, both generate appropriate actions, but their relationship is hierarchical: Lancelot’s conduct demonstrates that Love’s demands are superior to all others. Where a choice appears, he obeys Love first – and then discovers that any apparent conflict implied in the choice is finally dissipated by his extraordinary achievements. Love’s values do not eliminate those of chivalry: ac!
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inspired by love ultimately redounds to Lancelot’s credit as knight. (Bruckner 149-150) Lancelot, as a character, then, is significantly different from Eric and Yvain, as his elevation of love almost liquidates any desire of his to combat other knights. He does not wish to increase his own reputation and valor, but rather to gain the love and affection of the Queen. There is a strange relationship between mesure and love as well within the text. Chrétien chooses both textually and thematically to create a sense of comedy in the romance. He does this by Lancelot’s ridiculousness and complete lack of mesure in matters of love. In this way, the text varies significantly from the other romances. The women in this romance clearly have agency. This is yet another variation from some of the other romances. Guinevere somehow maintains control of her life, even while all the other men around her struggle to assert their dominance over her. All Guinevere has to do is utter a word and Lancelot is immediately at her beckon call. While Enide begs Eric to forgive her again and again, and he still simply refuses to acknowledge her as a presence, Guinevere merely tells Lancelot to stop fighting and he does so immediately. The reader constantly sees Guinevere as the person who is manipulating and controlling the different episodes;!
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even arranges the tryst with Lancelot and gives him orders when he comes to her bed at night. Guinevere is not the only woman to display agency, however, as the other female characters are surprisingly dominant. Meleagant’s sister demands that Lancelot behead her brother, and he does. She is the same woman who eventually finds and rescues the imprisoned Lancelot, while all the other men are still searching for him. Furthermore, the women who watch the tournament are clearly empowered, as the men display their prowess to impress them and try and receive one of their hands in marriage. Though this might seem degrading, it is soon demonstrated that the women indeed have control of the situation, and they even refuse to marry the oth!
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after they see Lancelot in combat. It is unclear why Chrétien uses this latent feminist ideology within Lancelot, while his other romances significantly lack female authority. Some scholarship has suggested that a substantial portion of this is due to Marie de Champagne’s influence over Chrétien and the subject matter of the text (http://students.ed.uiuc.edu/degang/Chretien.htm). Others suggest that the elevated role of women in the text merely contributes to theme of courtly love within the romance: Lancelot has special charm for women. He was raised by the fairy (Lady of the Either way, the feminist tone is clearly a significant attribute to Lancelot and sets the text apart from Chrétien’s other romances.
(A) Primary Sources Chrétien de Troyes. Arthurian Romances. Trans. W. W. Comfort. - - - Arthurian Romances. Trans. William W. Kibler. - - - Lancelot or The Knight of the Cart. Trans. Ruth Harwood Cline. - - - Les Romans de Chrétien de Troyes: Le Chevalier de la Charrete. - - - The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes. Trans. David (B) Secondary Sources Bruckner, Matilda Tomaryn. “Le Chevalier de la Charrette.” The Romances of Chrétien de Troyes: A Symposium. Ed. Douglass Kelly. Forum, Publishers, Inc., 1985. 132-181. This is a very useful essay in analyzing the text itself, and I recommend the book as a whole to anyone who wishes to further explore the works of Chrétien. The essay gives a detailed analysis of the conventions used within Lancelot and explores issues of identity in depth. Holmes, Urban T. Chrétien de Troyes. This text gives a brief introduction to Chrétien and then briefly analyzes the five romances. On the chapter of Lancelot, Holmes concentrates largely on the influence of Marie of Champagne on the text and on other possible sources for the text. It was somewhat helpful, but not nearly so much as some of the others. Kelly, Douglas. “Chrétien de Troyes: The Narrator and His Art.” The Romances of Chrétien de Troyes: A Symposium. Ed. Douglass Kelly. Forum, Publishers, Inc., 1985. 13-47. This is another helpful essay from the first book. Kelly explores some general themes seen throughout the romances (prowess, love, nemesis, chance…) and really gives an astute account on the historical and cultural happenings of the twelfth century. For anyone who is doing their paper on Chrétien, I strongly recommend checking this book out. Noble, Peter S. Love and Marriage in Chrétien de As the title suggests, this text traces the theme of love and marriage throughout the five romances. This text was not as helpful as the previous two, as the focus was much more narrow and Noble seems to become repetitive after awhile. Topsfield, L. T. A Study of the Arthurian Romances. This text gives textual analysis for all of the romances. The chapter on Lancelot took an interesting approach, as it compared the text with the others by it’s dissimilarity to the other romances, as opposed to it’s similarity – as a lot of the other sources do. I found this approach helpful when considering the themes expressed throughout Lancelot. Vance, I found this text to be probably the least helpful. It did give some accurate and helpful background information on the late twelfth century, but overall the format was unnecessarily complicated and there was not a whole lot of information that helped further my research. (A) Links to Primary sources http://sunsite3.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Lancelot Complete E-text of Lancelot available on website. http://islamlib.com/EBooks/sastraeropa.htm/ This website offers multiple links to Chrétien de Troyes’ romances, including Lancelot, and other various medieval literature. http://www.bluffton.edu/~humanities/1/lancelot.htm Complete E-text of Lancelot available on website. http://gallica.bnf.fr/themes/LitMAm.htm Provides a bibliography of the author and a link to the complete text of Lancelot in French. Peckham, Dr. Robert D. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/831 Provides e-texts to four of Chrétien’s romances. Talley, Janet. Abridged, slightly modernized, and corrected by James M. Blythe http://cas.memphis.edu/~jmblythe/3370/ChretienLancelot.htm This website provides most of the online text of Lancelot. It highlights certain parts of the text and gives really vague notes on the subject matter. (B) Links to Secondary Sources http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chrAOtien_de_Troyes This website gives background information on the author, as well as a summary of four of the romances. http://www.princeton.edu/~lancelot/romance.html This website is loaded with information on Chrétien, but more significantly with textual analysis of Lancelot. It gives a detailed summary of the plot, as well as highlights some thematic and critical issues of the text. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1170chretien-lancelot.html This website gives historical relevancy to Chrétien’s texts, and explores the textual issues of adultery and the intense physical trials. http://students.ed.uiuc.edu/degang/Chretien.htm This website takes a feminist approach to Chrétien’s romances and analyzes the woman question throughout each text. This is worth taking a look at for anyone who wishes to explore the roles of women in Chrétien. http://www.greenmanreview.com/-royes.html This website gives a very condensed summary of Lancelot, as well as some inaccuracies with the translation by D. D. R. Owen. http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/jsp/db/author.jsp?authorId=585&authorName=Chretien+de+Troyes This website is similar to the wikipedia entry; it gives background information on Chrétien, as well as links to related subject matter and Arthurian characters. Bailey, Miranda. Ed. Paul Battles Fall 2000 http://www2.hanover.edu/battles/arthur/ann.bib.htm. An extremely helpful annotated bibliography, which contains several web sources as well as hard sources on all subjects, characters, and themes pertaining to Arthur. I highly recommend checking this website out for anyone who is having difficulty in finding primary or secondary sources.
Melisa Creese,
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