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OVERVIEW
OF CONTINUATIONS
The unfinished nature
of The Story of the Grail (Conte del Graal), written by Chrétien
de Troyes in the late twelfth century, prompted a series of writers to
continue or adapt the story. Four continuations in French verse were composed
in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. The First Continuation,
also known in early scholarship as the Pseudo-Wauchier Continuation, was
written by an anonymous poet around 1190 and starts where Chrétien
ends, concentrating more on Gawain than Perceval, and does not come to
a conclusion. The Second Continuation, also known in early scholarship
as the Wauchier Continuation, was written by another anonymous poet between
1190 and 1200 and picks up where the First Continuation leaves off, telling
more of Perceval while continuing to follow Gawain. The Second Continuation
also comes to no conclusion, but is carried on by two separate later works,
both composed between 1210 and 1230: one written by Gerbert de Montreuil,
thought to have provided a conclusion which has been lost, and the other
written by Manessier, which finally brings the story
of Perceval and the Grail to a close. The texts of Manessier and
Gerbert are sometimes called the Third and Fourth Continuations, respectively.
Between 1191 and 1200,
Robert de Boron wrote the verse trilogy li Livres dou Graal—the
first cycle of Grail romances, intended to provide a history of the Grail
and Arthur's kingdom—composed of Joseph d'Arimathie, Merlin
and Perceval. A single manuscript preserves Joseph and part
of Merlin, but there is no extant text of Robert's verse Perceval.
Soon after Robert's verse romances were completed, they were rewritten
in prose, as noted below.
Thirteenth-century
French Prose Continuations
to the romances of Chrétien de Troyes: |
- The
prose translations of Robert de Boron
- -
Joseph d'Arimathie
- Merlin (+ the Suite du Merlin)
- Didot-Perceval
(also called Petit
Saint Graal)
- The
Perlesvaus (also called The
High History of the Holy Grail/
- Le
Haut Livre du Graal or Perceval le Gallois)
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- The
Vulgate Cycle (also called the Lancelot-Grail Cycle,
the Prose Lancelot, or the Pseudo-Map Cycle)
- -
The History of the Holy Grail (L'Estoire del Saint Graal)
-
Merlin
- Lancelot
(also called the Lancelot
Proper, to distinguish it from the Cycle)
- The
Grail Quest (La Queste del Saint Graal)
- The Death of Arthur (La Mort le Roi Artu)
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A prose redaction
of Robert's Joseph exists, as does a prose Merlin which
corresponds to a complete version of the fragmentary surviving verse Merlin.
The Didot-Perceval, in a separate manuscript named for its
owner, is thought by some scholars (e.g. Brugger and Roach) to preserve
in prose form Robert's lost verse Perceval. Others
(e.g. Bruch and Bogdanow) claim that the the Didot-Perceval cannot
derive from a hypothetical verse Perceval, as it draws heavily
from the First Continuation of Chrétien (which
they believe post-dates Robert's work). A
sequel called the Suite du Merlin, attached to one version of the
prose Merlin, claims to be the work of Robert; scholars disbelieve
this assertion, but acknowledge that the two tales combined were meant
to contribute to a Grail romance more complex than Robert's alone.
The
Perlesvaus is discussed in detail below.
The
Vulgate Cycle, composed roughly between 1215 and 1235, contains five interrelated
romances (listed above) which together form a comprehensive history of
Arthur's Kingdom and the Grail, connected to Old and New Testament stories.
The text claims an undeniably false author—Walter Map—who died
in 1209, before the earliest possible date of composition. Jean Frippier
offers the prevailing theory of authorship: that the Cycle was originally
planned by one or more persons who may have written the Lancelot Proper
or another of the romances, while other writers composed the remainder
of the Cycle within the boundaries of a strict and detailed plan. Yet
the Vulgate Cycle is ambiguous, as the combination of texts differs between
manuscripts, sometimes including other texts such as Le Livre d'Artus;
as Norris Lacy explains, "the identification of five romances
as constituent elements in the cycle is to a good extent a critical convenience."
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THE
PERLESVAUS
The first sentence
of the Perlesvaus tells that the story was recorded by Josephus,
which Bryant glosses as "Flavius Josephus, author of a supposed Latin
original." Elsewhere in the text, it is said that Josephus received
a revelation of the Holy Spirit from an angel, and set this down in Latin;
the anonymous narrator of the Perlesvaus claims to have translated
Josephus into French, working from a book which he found on the Island
of Avalon. The citation of a previous (though unnamed) source seems intended
to present the text as authentic, as the anonymous narrator implies a
historical rather than literary text. Few particulars
of the narrator/author's identity are known, although Thomas Kelly asserts
that the author was "most certainly a clerc [=cleric, as he
was well read]...who must have had access to an unusually good library."
According to William
Nitze, the Perlesvaus was composed sometime between 1191 and 1212.
Much scholarship explores how original the author of the Perlesvaus
was; the answer depends squarely upon the date of composition, and thus
where (or rather when) it falls in relation to other twelfth- and thirteenth-century
Prose Continuations. Nigel Bryant downplays the importance of dating the
texts, instead remarking that all the Prose Continuations of this time
were so different from one another, and that the basic Grail material
must have been adapted and reworked for a specific purpose in each case.
While serving the
purpose of 'telling the story,' the plot summary below lacks the nuances
which distinguish the Perlesvaus from other Grail romances. Aside
from being longer
and more complex than Chrétien's work, the Perlesvaus differs
significantly from The Story of the Grail in its treatment of love,
courtliness and Christianity. Love between man and woman (as opposed to
man and God) is vastly deemphasized in the Perlesvaus, which also
lacks the close attention Chrétien pays to courtly culture, except
in the case of Lancelot and Guinevere, whose adulterous relationship is
held up in contrast to Christian morality. The
Perlesvaus is militantly Christian, drawing allegorical associations
not present in Chrétien's work.
The Perlesvaus
continues
where Chrétien left off, and can be considered in essence a sequel
to The Story of the Grail, although the title character is called
Perlesvaus rather than Perceval. While The Story
of the Grail is not explicitly mentioned, the Perlesvaus alludes
to many events in that tale, seeming to assume that readers would find
it familiar. References to the First and Second (verse) Continuations
demonstrate that the author of the Perlesvaus also knew these texts.
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PLOT
SUMMARY
Note:
In the interest of brevity, many relatively minor adventures have
been omitted, although many of these incidents are quite significant
in critical analysis of the Perlesvaus.
BRANCH I. - The
Holy Grail is introduced in an explicitly Christian context. Perlesvaus’s
failure to ask about the Grail is briefly recalled: “through
just a few words which he neglected to say, such great misfortunes
befell Britain that all the isles and all the lands fell into
great sorrow” (Bryant 19). King Arthur has lost interest
in chivalry, and his best knights are leaving. Queen Guenivere
persuades Arthur to go to Wales, where he will be cured of his
troubles after enduring several perilous adventures.
- BRANCH
II.
- The
three Damsels of the Cart bring the shield of Joseph of Arimathea
to Arthur's court, where Perlesvaus is destined to find it. Leaving
Arthur's court, the Damsels encounter Gawain, who then takes up
the Grail quest.
- BRANCH
III.
- Gawain
visits Perlesvaus's mother at Kamaalot and, by defeating her enemies
in a tournament, allows her to reclaim ownership of the castle.
- BRANCH
IV.
- Gawain
is challenged by Marin the Jealous after receiving food and lodging
from Marin's wife. In combat, Marin abruptly flees from Gawain's
charge and stabs his own wife. Moving on, Gawain meets the Coward
Knight, who is armed improperly (absurdly so) and has no desire
to fight with anyone.
- BRANCH
V.
- Gawain
reaches the land of the Fisher King, which he finds he cannot
enter without presenting the Sword that was used to behead Saint
John (John the Baptist). He begins a quest in search of this Sword.
- BRANCH
VI.
- After
enduring more conflict, Gawain acquires the Sword of Saint John.
Gawain arrives at the Fisher King's castle, where he sees the
Grail and the Lance but, enchanted by the Grail and distracted
by three drops of blood fallen from the Lance onto the white tablecloth,
he fails to ask about the Grail.
Gawain eventually encounters Lancelot who then takes up the Grail
quest. At the Castle of the Beards, Lancelot demonstrates his
devotion to Guenivere. Lancelot next arrives in a devastated city,
where he meets a finely-attired knight who demands to be beheaded;
upon this knight's insistence, Lancelot agrees to return in one
year and offer his own head freely in the same manner.
- BRANCH
VII.
- Perlesvaus,
who has been living with his hermit-uncle Pelles ever since he
failed to ask about the Grail, begins to yearn again for adventure.
Challenging the first knight he encounters, Perlesvaus attacks
Lancelot; they fight until Pelles stops them, informing them that
they are kin. Seeking other adventures, Perlesvaus fights with
his arch-enemies—relatives of the Red Knight—and eventually
returns to the home of his uncle.
- BRANCH
VIII.
- Lancelot
reaches the Fisher King's castle, where the Grail does not appear
to him because he refuses to repent for his love for Guenivere.
Meanwhile, Perlesvaus encounters his uncle, the treacherous King
of Chastel Mortel (Castle Mortal), fights bravely against him
and drives him out of the territory. Perlesvaus then travels to
King Arthur's court and anonymously claims the shield left by
the Damsels of the Cart. Lancelot and Gawain miss Perlesvaus at
Arthur's court, but later find him and tell him that his mother
needs his help. While travelling to his mother, Perlesvaus learns
that the Fisher King has died. At Kamaalot, Perlesvaus cruelly
defeats his mother's enemy, but only after he comes across the
body of Loholt, Arthur's son, killed by Kay, who has turned traitor
to Arthur. The Damsels of the Cart arrive at Kamaalot, summoning
Perlesvaus to defend the Grail Castle (called the Fisher King's
castle, above) against the King of Chastel Mortel, who has declared
his wish to uphold the Old Law (Old Testament) and abandon the
New Law (New Testament).
- BRANCH
IX.
- Perlesvaus
continues the Grail quest, with many adventures on the way. With
his cousin Joseus (son of Pelles), Perlesvaus claims the Grail
Castle by force, driving the King of Chastel Mortel to suicide.
The Grail appears in the chapel, along with the Lance and the
Sword of Saint John, and Perlesvaus restores peace by killing
anyone who will not accept the New Law.
Arthur sees two suns in the sky and hears a voice which tells
him to seek the Grail, along with his best knights; before leaving,
Arthur learns that Kay has cruelly slain Loholt and is involved
in a revolt against Arthur. Arthur, Lancelot and Gawain travel
to the Grail Castle. On the way there, they part ways as Lancelot
returns to the devastated city to offer his head as he had promised,
and Arthur and Gawain participate in the Three Days' Tournament.
Once reunited, the three learn that Guenivere has died from grief
over Loholt's death; Arthur and Gawain continue to the Grail Castle
while Lancelot returns to court in profound grief.
- BRANCH
X.
- Arthur
and Gawain reach the Grail Castle and, during the consecration
of the Mass, they see the Grail in five forms, the last being
a chalice. Arthur is taught the religious rites of the chalice,
an object which had not been known in his Kingdom until then.
Perlesvaus is called back to Kamaalot to fight Aristor, another
enemy of his mother. Back in Arthur's Kingdom, acts of political
treachery and vengeance have occurred between Kay and his allies
from Brittany on one side, and Arthur and Lancelot on the other.
While Lancelot is away fighting a powerful pagan enemy, Arthur
is persuaded by Kay's ally Brien that Lancelot is guilty of treason,
leading him to imprison Lancelot upon his return. Meanwhile, Perlesvaus
leans that Aristor has killed his uncle, Pelles.
- BRANCH
XI.
- With
Gawain and Perlesvaus away, Arthur needs Lancelot's help and frees
him from prison; the enemy flees shortly thereafter. Perlesvaus
kills Aristor and frees his mother's castle from the Red Knight's
kin. In his next travels, Perlesvaus comes upon the Mad Castle
and converts its residents to the New Law. Perlesvaus brings his
mother and sister to the Grail Castle and stays there until they
die; at that point he leaves the Grail Castle in the hands of
Joseus, boards a mysterious ship and sails away, never to be seen
again. When Joseus dies, the castle falls to ruin.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
- An
English translation of the Perlesvaus by Sebastian
Evans was available in 1898 (reissued in 1903 and 1910), although
it was not made from the best Old French source: Perceval
le Gallois ou le Conte du Graal—the
first modern edition of the Perlesvaus—edited by Charles
Potvin in 1866, drew from an inferior manuscript of a second redaction
of the romance. Nitze and Jenkins, following a superior manuscript,
claim to present an earlier and more accurate version of the original
text. Bryant offers an English translation of Nitze and Jenkins' work.
The majority of scholarly literature about the Perlesvaus uses
Nitze and Jenkins as the primary source.
-
- Le Haut Livre
du Graal: Perlesvaus. 2 vols. 1932-37. Ed. William A Nitze and
- T. Atkinson Jenkins.
New York: Phaeton Press, 1972. (This edition contains
the text of the Perlesvaus in Old French, with commentary and
notes in English.)
-
- The High Book
of the Grail: A Translation of the Thirteenth-Century Romance of
- Perlesvaus.
Trans. Nigel Bryant. Totowa, NJ: D.S. Brewer, Rowman and Littlefield,
1978. (This edition contains an English translation
of the Old French edition edited by Nitze and Jenkins.)
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SECONDARY
SOURCES
-
- Berthelot, Anne.
"The Other-World Incarnate: 'Chastel Mortel' and 'Chastel
- des Armes' in the
Perlesvaus." Trans. Amy Reed and John Jay Thomson.
Yale French Studies 1 (1991): 210-222. 23 Oct. 2005 <http://www.jstor.org/>.
Berthelot asserts the status of
allegory in the Perlesvaus as ornamental
and proposed but not comprehensive and imposed (as Carmen proposes in
"The Symbolism of the Perlesvaus," 1946), yet attributes
subsequent conceptions of the Grail to the depth afforded by allegorical
interpretation.
- Kelly, Thomas E.
"Love in the Perlesvaus: Sinful Passion of Redemptive Force?"
- Romanic Review
66 (1975): 1-12.
Categorizing the story as a "romance of Redemption"
inclusive of sinners (as opposed
to Robert de Boron's exclusive Redemption of the righteous), Kelly
demonstrates the originality of the author of
Perlesvaus in reconciling
the paradox between courtly love (having both sinful and noble aspects)
and Christian morality. Kelly argues
that the structure of Perlesvaus has been misunderstood in previous
scholarship, and divides
the text into two phases aligned with Christ's efforts to save humankind.
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- Kennedy, Angus
J. "Punishment in the Perlesvaus: The Theme of the
Waste Land."
- The Grail: A
Casebook. Ed. Dhira B. Mahoney. New York: Garland, 2000. 219-235.
Kennedy
claims that the author of the Perlesvaus handles the Waste Land
theme (characterisic
of French Grail romances between c. 1180 and c. 1240)
in an original manner, as Perlesvaus's (Perceval's) failure is responsible
for the devastated landscape of Arthur's Kingdom as well as the moral
and spiritual decline of Arthur and his court. Kennedy identifies the
contrast between Arthur's blighted landscape and the Fisher King's rich
country as a statement of Christian supremacy, as the Waste Land embodies
both the Fall of Man and the collective punishment of those who would
not recognize Christ as savior.
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WORKS
CONSULTED
- Bogdanow, Fanni.
The Romance of the Grail: A Study of the Structure and Genesis of
- a Thirteenth-Century
Arthurian Prose Romance. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1966.
-
- Carman,
J. Neale. "The Symbolism of the Perlesvaus." PMLA 61
(1946): 42-83.
- 18
Oct. 2005 <http://www.jstor.org/>.
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- Kelly,
Thomas E. Le Haut Livre du Graal: Perlesvaus. A Structural Study.
Geneva:
- Librairie
Droz, 1974.
-
- Lacy, Norris J.
"The Evolution and Legacy of French Prose Romance." The
Cambridge
- Companion to
Medieval Romance. Ed. Roberta L. Krueger. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2000. 167-182.
- Nitze, William
A. "Messire Robert de Boron: Enquiry and Summary." Speculum
28
- (1953): 279-296.
-
- Nitze, William
A. "On the Chronology of the Grail Romances. I: The
Date of the
- 'Perlesvaus.'"
Modern
Philology
17 (1919): 151-166. 19 Oct. 2005 <http://www.jstor.org/>.
-
- Nitze, William
A. "On the Chronology of the Grail Romances. I: The
Date of the
- 'Perlesvaus'—(Concluded)."
Modern Philology 17 (1920): 605-618. 19 Oct. 2005 <http://www.jstor.org/>.
-
-
- Roach, William.
Introduction. The First Continuation. 1949. Philadelphia: American
- Philosophical Society,
1965. Vol. 1 of The Continuations of the Old French
Perceval of Chretién de Troyes. 4 vols. 1949-1971.
- Rosenberg, Samuel
N. "The Prose Merlin and the Suite du Merlin."
The Romance of Arthur:
- An Anthology
of Medieval Texts in Translation. Ed. James J. Wilhelm. New York:
Garland, 1994. 305-363.
-
- Staines, David.
Introduction. The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes.
Bloomington,
- ID: Indiana University
Press, 1990.
Weston,
Jessie L. "The 'Perlesvaus' and the Story of the Coward Knight."
- Modern
Philology 20 (1923): 379-389. 18 Oct. 2005 <http://www.jstor.org/>.
-
- White, Richard,
ed. King Arthur in Legend and History. New York: Routledge, 1997.
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