Essay Formatting

Note: This is not a complete guide to essay style and format. Consult your MLA Handbook or Chicago Manual of Style (the two style guides most commonly used in the Humanities) for complete details.

Reference to the Author

Many students begin their essays with some reference to what Author X does in Text Y. The reference typically takes the form of one of the sentences below:

In The Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer, he presents a diverse group of people...

In Geoffrey Chaucer's poem The Canterbury Tales, he presents a diverse group of people...

These choices of phrasing are not particularly elegant. Try eliminating the pronoun:

In The Canterbury Tales Geoffrey Chaucer presents a diverse group of people...

Much nicer, isn't it?

Reference to the Text

The titles of books, plays, and longer (especially narrative) poems should be placed in italics or underlined. The titles of short poems should be placed between quotation marks.

In published, printed texts titles are placed in italics. The MLA Style Guide advises the use of underlining as an equivalent to italics for the submission of texts prior to printing, grading, or editing. This is an acceptable alternative, especially if you are using an older medium (handwriting or typewriter) which cannot produce italics. However, with the advent of the word processor, this usage appears somewhat old-fashioned. It is preferable to use italics to give your essay the appearance of a finished, polished product.

Spelling and Punctuation

Unless you declare yourself to have a learning disability, poor spelling and punctuation send a signal to the reader that you are sloppy and raise questions about your attention to detail. In the business world, this could lose you a pay rise or, worse, a job opportunity. Indeed, many business managers now complain that the university graduates they are interviewing are 'barely literate' (their words). In the business world English majors are expected to have precisely these skills, and, if you are an English major who doesn't have them -- or doesn't pay attention to them -- you are likely to be seen as particularly unworthy of employment or promotion. That makes your professors look bad as well.

Here in the ivory tower, you need to train yourself to pay attention to such things. In English, you are supposed to study literary texts in some degree of depth. I assume that anyone who has not learnt the correct spellings of the names of characters in that text and of the literary and cultural terms important to interpreting that text could not have read the text or studied its context in great detail. Misspellings of the names of characters, authors, and technical terms, show that you are not mastering the material. Note that these, along with more general spelling errors, make essays much harder for professors to read. In general, the better the spelling and punctuation, the faster we can get essays back to you. Idealists may claim that we are grading you on your thoughts, but, just as the business world is not so indulgent, I am increasingly inclined to be less so. It is in everybody's interest that you make good spelling and punctuation a high priority.

Accent marks in words in foreign languages can be left off of capital letters. If you leave an accent off of a lower case letter in words in foreign languages, this is a spelling mistake. In Microsoft Word accents can be added by selecting Symbol in the Insert menu. Other word processors will have similar procedures. If you do not know how to insert a particular accent, write it in by hand after printing out your essay.

Older English characters like æ (ash), ð (eth), and þ (thorn) are also available by selecting Symbol in the Insert menu. Note that some of these characters are not available on the Macintosh platform and may also not show up correctly on the web if you are using a Macintosh. If you have any problem, just leave a blank space and write these letters in by hand after printing out your essay.

Reference to Names in Medieval Texts

Medieval texts frequently use multiple spellings of the names of characters and places. Except when quoting directly from the text, you should select one form (generally the most commonly occurring one) and use it consistently.

Many Middle English texts variously refer to the names of characters in English, French, and Latin forms. When referring to names in Middle English, always use the English form of the name, unless you are quoting directly from the text (so use "May", not "Mayus"). Be consistent with your spelling. If you are not directly quoting the text, use Modern English spellings of names ("Athens", not "Athenes", "Wife of Bath", not "Wyf of Bathe").

Tense

Literary criticism is conventionally written in the present tense, unless you are referring to an historical event. So "Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales", but "In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer writes about a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury". There is nothing theoretically wrong about putting "wrote" in the second example; it's just that it's unconventional. Hence we professors aren't used to it and find it odd. More importantly, we react very badly to essays that narrate events in literature in the past tense, as in the following example:

When Theseus broke up the fight between Palamon and Arcite, he decided to make himself the referee.

Here the use of the present tense makes much more sense. Theseus' intervention isn't a one-off; it happens every time you open the book and read the passage in question. No matter how much we professors try to ignore the effect of the unconventional use of the past tense in contexts like the quote above, it still makes us think that the student has read the Knight's Tale, dashed off an essay, and gone off to watch Sex in the City, never to have another thought about Theseus, Palamon, and Arcite again. How depressing!

There are, of course, some cases when the past tense is appropriate. Consider the following example:

Theseus indulges the two young knights since, like them, he was once a servant of love.

Here the "was" refers to an event that took place before the event being described. You'll notice that the actual event being described -- Theseus' indulgence -- is still referred to in the present tense.

Quotations

Different style sheets (MLA, Chicago, etc.) have different conventions for quoting in literary essays. Normally I am tolerant of variations, but many students do not seem aware of some features shared by all for quoting poetry. Please follow the guidelines below (and your other professors will appreciate it if you do this in other classes).

Cite page numbers for prose and line numbers for poetry. If you are quoting a poem translated into prose, cite line numbers if possible; otherwise cite page numbers.

If you are citing The Canterbury Tales from The Riverside Chaucer, you may replace the name of the tale with the fragment number. Hence you may cite line 1 of the Knight's Tale as "(Knight's Tale, 1)" or as "(I.859)" (that is, line 859 of Fragment I).

When citing poetry indicate the line breaks you find in the edition you are quoting from. Do not cite the text as continuous prose.

Short Quotations

If you are quoting three lines or fewer, indicate the line breaks with "/". Here is an example from an essay on Chaucer:

[Chaucer's] images are simple and direct. They are for the most part introduced with nothing more than a "like to", or "as", and cover all phases of human activity, and make their effect by their homely and immediate appeal. The bells on the Monk's bridle ring "in a whistlynge wynd als cleere, / And eek as loude as dooth the chapel belle" (General Prologue, 170-171).

Remember to separate the "/" from any other text or punctuation with spaces on either side.

Longer Quotations

If your quotation consists of four or more lines or prose or poetry, follow the guidelines below:

• Separate the quotation from the main text of your essay by indenting it. You may single space the quotation, but do not centre the text and do not change the font.
• The indentation indicates that the text is a quotation; you do not need quotations marks. However, if the quotation contains but does not consist entirely of dialogue, use quotation marks for the dialogue portions of the quotation.

Here are two examples:

The arming scene calls our attention to the difficulties of judging Gawain's actions. Hollis nicely states the problem:

The poem itself prompts us to ask questions about the process involved in Gawain's action. The arming scene, in its interpretation of the pentangle symbol, presents us with an apparently perfect hero, one whose virtues are so preeminent and so tightly integrated that it appears impossible for evil to find entry (619-65, esp. 656-61). How, then, does it happen that, much as Gawain and the Green Knight differ in their judgement, Gawain acts in such a way that both agree he has fallen short of perfection? (1)

It is thus important to consider in what ways Gawain considers himself to have failed. Gawain makes four attempts to explain his failing, each quite distinct in kind. His initial reaction to the Green Knight's revelation is to regard his action in terms of specific vices causing the destruction of virtue:

"Corsed worth cowarddyse and couetyse bothe!
In yow is vylany and vyse that vertue disstryez."
Thenne he ka3t to the knot, and the kest lawsez,
Brayde brothely the belt to the burne seluen"
"Lo! ther the falssyng, foule mot his falle!" (2374-84)

Gawain's account of his behaviour here is reminiscent of the action of a morality play.

Here is an example without any dialogue:

First we may take his work in rhyme royal and look at a passage in which a sense of considerable emotion has to be conveyed:

The lyf so short, the craft so long to lerne,
Th'assay so hard, so sharp the conquerynge,
The dredful joye, alwey that slit so yerne:
Al this mene I by Love, that my felynge
Astonyeth with his wonderful werkynge
So sore iwis, that whan I on hym thynke,
Nat wot I wel where that I flete or synke. (The Parliament of Fowls, ll. 1-7)

Now while it is true, as Professor Manly points out that his passage in an example of the rhetorical method of beginning a poem with a sententia, it is even more important to observe how Chaucer has given the bare idea a life and emotion of his own.

Parenthetic Citations

When quoting texts, give the name of the text followed by the page or line numbers, as appropriate. Always cite line numbers for poetry if they are given in the edition from which you are citing.

If you end a sentence with a quote that does not need a parenthetic citation, the sentence-ending punctuation mark (".", "!", or "?") goes inside the quotation mark. For example:

In response to the Green Knight's words, Arthur jumps up, as if to say, "I'm ready for a fight."

When a parenthetic citation is necessary, one might be tempted to place the parenthetic reference inside the quotation marks:

The bells on the Monk's bridle ring "in a whistlynge wynd als cleere, / And eek as loude as dooth the chapel belle (General Prologue, 170-171)".

This implies that Chaucer wrote "(General Prologue, 170-171)"; obviously, he didn't. So make sure you put the parenthetic reference outside the quotation marks. However, it is conventional to put the period after the quotation, so the correct format is as follows:

The bells on the Monk's bridle ring "in a whistlynge wynd als cleere, / And eek as loude as dooth the chapel belle" (General Prologue, 170-171).

This is also true for the end of a clause. Notice the location of the comma in the following example.

The bells on the Monk's bridle ring "in a whistlynge wynd als cleere, / And eek as loude as dooth the chapel belle" (General Prologue, 170-171), and we may conclude that he wants to be noticed.

ALWAYS put a space between the quotation mark and the parenthetic citation. Compare the following examples.

a. The Green Knight asks, "What, is this Arthures hous?"(309).
b. The Green Knight asks, "What, is this Arthures hous?" (309).

Sentences like sentence (a) make me REALLY grumpy. Spend an extra ten minutes eliminating them entirely from your essay.

Commas before Quotations

Comma placement before a quotation also causes people trouble. Notice that in 'The bells on the Monk's bridle ring "in a whistlynge wynd als cleere…"' there is no comma after "ring" and before the beginning of the quote? This is because the quotation works grammatically in the sentence. In this case, the first letter of the quotation should be lower case (unless the first word is a proper noun). With shorter quotations you should attempt to do this wherever possible on stylistic grounds. Here are some examples of quotations integrated into the grammar of the sentence.

The next step is his alliance with covetousness -- he identifies himself with a vice, forsaking his true nature to become "fawty and falce" (2382).

Gawain has very good reasons besides modesty to decline the Lady's offer to "take the toruayle to myself to trwluf expoun" (1540).

The Lady of the Castle appeals to Gawain's "manhod" when she reminds him that he is "stif innoghe to constrayne wyth strenkthe" (1497).

Putter argues that "the poet's commitment to ideals of courtoisie, the high standards of refinement and delicacy imperative at court, inevitably entails emphasis on coarseness and locus to which it is intrinsic" (47-48).

Both versions introduce Tom Bombadil without further explanation as "a merry fellow" (646). Both also give Tom four adventures, or encounters with malignant powers.

Eomer says that "wanderers in the Riddermark would be wise to be less haughty in these days of doubt" (645-55).

Shippey argues that "Tolkien knew (none better) that dwarf-names he had used in The Hobbit came from Old Norse" (55).

If you are quoting dialogue, or a statement made by an author, and you are drawing attention to it as a statement, a comma normally precedes the quote. This almost always comes after a verb like "says", "asks", "responds", "states", "screams", etc. In these instances, the quotation begins with a capital letter. Consider the following examples:

At the end of the first part of the Knight's Tale, Chaucer asks, "Who hath the worse, Arcite or Palamoun?" (Knight's Tale, 1348).

The narrator's own summing up is, indeed, a slightly tempered view of the absolute perfection put forward in 632-35. Hearing the Green Knight's challenge, Arthur responds, "Sir cortays knyght, / If thou crave batayl bare, / Here faylez thou not to fyght" (276-78).

He says, "This pure fyue / Were harder happed on that hathel then on any other" (645-55).

According to Putter, "The great Ricardian poets bequeathed to modern criticism a suspicion about the literary seriousness of Arthurian romance" (1).

Both versions introduce Tom Bombadil without further explanation: "Old Tom Bombadil was a merry fellow; / bright blue his jacket was, and his boots were yellow" (646). Both also give Tom four adventures, or encounters with malignant powers.

Eomer says, "Wanderers in the Riddermark would be wise to be less haughty in these days of doubt" (645-55).

According to Shippey, "Tolkien knew (none better) that dwarf-names he had used in The Hobbit came from Old Norse" (55).

Footnotes

Wherever possible, footnotes should be placed after the final punctuation mark of a sentence. You should normally use parenthetic references for line number citations. Use footnotes (or endnotes) only to cite the edition of the text you are using or secondary sources.

Integrating Quotations

When you include a quotation to illustrate a point you have made, the quotation should be followed by an explanation of how the material in the quotation illustrates your point.

Audience

For the purposes of writing literary criticism, it is generally conventional to assume that your readers will be familiar with the plot of the texts you are discussing, unless they are obscure. Generally, no plot summary is required; you should only describe the plot when directing your reader’s attention to an individual incident which you will then comment on. For instance:

When Nicholas attempts to seduce Alison, he claims that he will die for “derne love” of her. This reduces the courtly love tradition to the absurd.

For the purposes of writing essays for classes, you must also consider the relatively short length of most assignments; descriptions of the plot take up vital space which should be given over towards interpretation of the text. Since you are writing for a professor who you know to be very familiar with the text, to include such plot summary is likely to be perceived as mere filler.

You can also assume that well-known technical concepts and historical contexts for the literature you are discussing will be understood by interested readers. In general, you should only dwell on these things at length if they are more obscure or if you are going to be commenting on them or using them as a primary basis for your interpretation. That said, in essays for classes you have to assume a slightly “stupider” reader. Since your professor has to evaluate you knowledge for the purposes of grading the essay. You need to show that you have learnt and understand these concepts and contexts. So you should probably add a few extra sentences if necessary to demonstrate this. How much space you use must be balanced against the length of the essay.

Finally, an essay that is not almost totally free of mechanical errors would never be published. Whilst you may not be writing for publication, it is your professor’s job to help train you to write for the public. This includes people whose relationship with you may be professional, starting with your professor. Be advised that it is impolite and offensive to ask your professor to read essays in which you have not paid sufficient detail to mechanics (spelling, grammar) and format (conventional methods of presentation). Reading such essays takes longer, and the result is that your professor takes longer to return your classmates’ essays and has less time to perform other duties such as class preparation, administrative work, and research. In some cases, this may involve writing recommendations for students applying for jobs and graduate schools or applications for grants. If you don’t proofread adequately, you are not just affecting your grade, you are affecting people’s bank balances. Every essay should be approached as a professional activity. I read every essay as if I am assessing a candidate for a job interview.

Research

Citing outside sources in an essay is a way to indicate your understanding of concepts which have been discussed by others and which you don’t have space to duplicate in your essay. You may need to do some research amongst these outside sources to clarify your understanding of concepts you may not have fully grasped from class discussion. It is important to realise that, even if you have taken away a clear understanding of the material from class, the material discussed in class is almost always a simplification, since class time is limited (and we are unable to survey all the possible evidence). Doing research can help you gain a deeper and more sophisticated understanding of the material.

Web sites have the same disadvantages as class discussion, but even the best ones are often even more simplified accounts of the material since you are not able to ask questions. As such, the internet is almost always useless as a research medium. By and large citing a web site in your essay is not much better than not citing anything. There are some notable exceptions, and I expect the situation to change slowly for the better in the next decade, but for the moment you should choose printed essays and books over the internet if you want to do quality research. Note that, although this takes longer, the understanding you get from reading a full discussion is almost always better. This does not mean that you should never turn to the internet. Web sites often give you good starting points for what types of books and articles to read. This is the way you should use them, if at all possible. As a final note, it should be said that, because printed works generally have fuller discussions than web sites, citing printed works is generally perceived by readers as more impressive. I try to take account of this in my assessments of essays for the purposes of grading.

Last Update: 20 March, 2003