The purpose of this chapter is to provide you with an overview of the changes which English has undergone throughout its history. We will begin with a FAQ (a list of Frequently Asked questions), and then you will have the opportunity to undertake some short exercises in which you can see first-hand what these answers mean.
1. How old is the English language?
Dating is not easy, but written records and archaeological evidence indicate that the island of Britain was settled by speakers of the ancestor of the English language around the year 450 AD. If we use this as a starting point, the English language is just over 1,500 years old.
2. What is 'Old English'?
Make sure you distinguish between Old English and old English. The latter has no technical meaning and can be used to refer to anything from the earliest forms of the language to eighties 'Val Talk'. But the capitalised version refers to the language at a particular period in time, about 450-1100 AD. Many people think of Shakespeare's language as 'Old English', but Shakespeare lived between 1564 and 1616 -- almost five hundred years after the end of the Old English period.
3. What does 'Anglo-Saxon' mean?
In short, the same thing as 'Old English' -- when you're referring to the English language. What's the distinction, then? You'll need some background. The first English-speaking settlers of Britain lived well before the development of 'England' as a nation. Scholars know them as Anglo-Saxons and their history and culture as Anglo-Saxon history and culture. It was once also the fashion to call their language 'Anglo-Saxon'. The written form of the language looks to a beginner like a foreign language -- much more so than it actually is. In order to stress the continuity between their language and ours, modern scholars refer to the language the Anglo-Saxons spoke as Old English.
4. Where did the Anglo-Saxons come from?
In a later lesson, we'll look at the Anglo-Saxons' account of their origins in their own words. They tell the story better than I do. For now, though, we can say that they were tribes (ethnically known as Germanic) who lived across the North Sea from Britain in what is now Denmark, Northern Germany, and Holland.
5. So how much has English changed in 1,500 years?
In the 19th century, the philologist Henry Sweet referred to three periods in the history of English which were characterised by some notable grammatical tendencies. Old English is similar to many European languages in marking grammatical functions with 'endings' on words (like the -s in words which tells us that the word is plural). In the second period, Middle English, the number of these endings became significantly reduced and devices such as word order increased in grammatical function. Middle English lasted from approximately 1100-1500. When studying Middle English in detail, we can divide the period into Early Middle English and Late Middle English. Together, Old English and Middle English comprise the medieval period.
The third period is known as Modern English, lasting from about 1500 to the present. During this period the endings became reduced to a very few. As you can see, the medieval period was twice as long as the modern period. And you may be surprised to find that Shakespeare wrote Modern English! Well, if that goes against your intuitions, you'll be happy to know that the modern period is divided into Early Modern English (about 1500-1800) and Present-Day English (1800 to the present). Around 1800, the language (in its written form, at least) achieved approximately its present form.
6. How exactly has English changed?
Now we're getting into the nitty gritty of the subject. You already know part of the answer: English lost many of its grammatical endings over the course of time and word order became increasingly more important. But changes also occurred in handwriting, spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiom as well. We'll be studying many examples in this course. However, since you're sure to want an idea of the differences between Old English, Middle English, and Modern English, the exercises at the end of this lesson will help identify many of the changes which took place.
7. Why did English change?
The standard non-scholarly answer is that people were lazy and careless with their use of language. That certainly was (and is) the case for individuals in specific instances, but are then to conclude that we have inherited 1,500 years of laziness and carelessness, and that, if we were only more conscientious, we could all speak beautiful Old English? The fact is that even competent use of the language has changed over time. The more discerning of you might come up with a different reason for the changes English has undergone: to simplify its many complexities. Well, if that's what you thought of, you're on to something. But you shouldn't think that we now speak a simpler language than the Anglo-Saxons did. Tweaking one aspect of the language to make it simpler often creates new complexities. This is what drives language to change constantly. We'll be studying the causes of language change in much greater detail throughout the course.
8. Did English change because of historical events?
This is another common reason given for many of the developments English has undergone. The relationship between the internal history of the language and the external history of its speakers is a complex one. Different aspects of the language are affected to different extents by external history. The answer, then, is both yes and no. In this course we will look at how external history shaped the English language, but we will also explore how some changes developed on their own.
9. What did Old English, Middle English, and Early Modern English sound like?
A National Endowment for the Humanities grant allowed me to build a time machine, and the resulting extensive library of recordings will bear fruit in my Anglo-Saxon Drinking Songs CD, to be released next year. Sadly, I was unable to bring my camera equipment into the theatre when I tried to get the first production of Hamlet on film. OK, my little joke. We don't really have any way of knowing how English was pronounced before the invention of sound recordings. But we do have some remarkably good evidence, either from contemporary observations or from a technique called linguistic reconstruction (which we'll learn more about later). So we can guess at the pronunciation without being too far off. In the exercises below you will be able to listen to sound recordings of how linguists believe the texts you'll be examining sounded. Who knows? Hearing these may even help you answer some of the questions.
10. What do I need to know for this course, and what will I learn?
The course is designed to introduce you to the two most important things you need to know about the history of the English language: the history of those who spoke (and speak) the English and the way language (especially the English language) worked in the past and works in the present. Essentially, you will study both history and linguistics. Be prepared to take on both. You'll come away with a lot more, as well: knowledge about literature and poetry, art and archaeology, and sociology. You'll also develop analytical skills and an understanding of the way systems work. Most importantly, you'll pick up thousands of items of trivia which are sure to come in handy as pick-up lines....
Now that you've got an idea of what this subject is all about, why not have a look a text in Old English and compare it with the same text in Middle English and Modern English. The exercises will guide you through the texts and help you to locate both their similarities and their differences.