There are many versions of an overall model of the organization development process in the literature; however, all are basically variations on the model outlined below. We will use the following four-stage model of the OD process as a fundamental, orienting structure throughout the course:

Note that, although this is shown as a single cycle in the diagram above, there normally is considerable overlap, feedback, and cycling back among all of the stages. For example, during data collection and diagnosis, frequently new issues are identified that require a revision of the contracting, or during planning and/or implementing change, there will be identified needs for additional data gathering and diagnosis. The OD process is NOT a simple, linear, one-pass process.

Entering and Contracting

This initial phase is a necessary part of every consulting project, although the process and formality vary considerably, depending on the situation. These initial steps involve a preliminary exploration of the organization's problems and issues, plus developing a collaborative relationship between the consultant and key members of the client organization regarding how to work on those issues. Entering and contracting are quite different for an external consultant who is completely new to the organization than for a consultant who is internal or has a previous history with the organization. There are both advantages and disadvantages to being an internal or external consultant. In major projects, it often is useful to involve both in a team.

• What is the presenting problem and how do you honor this while determining what are the real organizational problems and issues? How do you deal with a predetermined diagnosis and specified "solution" which may not be what is needed?
• Who is the client and how do you deal with the multiplicity of stakeholders?
• How much readiness for change is present and how can a satisfactory degree be developed?
• Dealing with confidentiality vs. the need to surface important issues that may have been undiscussible
• Trust - building and maintaining it
• Consultant expertise and role
• Ethical and value system conflicts

• Goals for and scope of the consulting project
• Anticipated results and mutual expectations
• Operating ground rules
• Role of the consultant
• Responsibilities of both consultant and client
• Point of contact (who in the organization makes decisions about the project and is the primary interface for the consultant)
• Schedule
• Resources, fees, and arrangements for payment
• Termination procedures

• Insufficient or ambiguous level of commitment to change
• Resistance or opposition by major stakeholders
• Major clients lack power to influence change or manage the boundaries to allow change within their organization
• Client's desire to manipulate the consultant or use the consultant in ways that violate the latter's ethical framework

Diagnosis

• Be based on current, relevant data
• Result from joint involvement of both consultant and client(s)
• Make use of appropriate models of organizational functioning and dysfunctioning (although all are simplified approximations of reality)
• Deal with feelings in the client system (e.g., anxiety, defensiveness, fear, hope...)
• Focus on key, underlying problems
• Energize the client to act in ways to improve the organization

There are many methods of data collection, each with different advantages and disadvantages. For modest-sized teams, the most common methods are individual interviews and direct observations of meetings and other interactions. For larger organizations, questionnaires and surveys may be necessary and useful. All of these differ in richness, efficiency, flexibility, validity, opportunity to establish rapport, etc.

In analyzing data, it is important to look for:

• Similarities and differences in the understandings and perceptions of various individuals, especially about goals and roles
• Variance (differences) between public and private talk about important issues - issues that are "off-limits" or "undiscussible"
• Distinguish between symptoms and causes
• Be selective in identifying the most important (critical) issues for attention

It is vital to provide appropriate feedback of data to those who participate in providing it to:

• Ensure that the recipients/clients see the data as meaningful and relevant
• Help the client understand the data
• Transfer ownership of the data from the consultant to the client
• Energize the client to use the data for actions to improve the organization

Planning & Implementing Change

There are many types of interventions that might be used. A separate note classifies some of the major options in terms of their primary target (organizational level) and focus (aspect or process within the organization that needs improvement). A few important considerations are:

• The actions should be specific to the particular organization at this time (one should be suspicious of pre-packaged consulting solutions claiming universal application - remember the old adage about the kid who receives a hammer)
• Both consultant and client should be involved in planning and carrying out the interventions
The client gets to make the final decisions - he/she has to live with the actions and their outcomes
• The actions should improve the client's ability to deal with future problems, rather than create dependency on the consultant

Stabilizing & Evaluating Change

Also, it is important for all concerned - consultant and client system - to evaluate and learn from the actions and changes that have been made. Too often both dash on to their next projects and fail to analyze and distill learnings from the previous project. I believe Toynbee's warning, "those who fail to learn the lessons of history are condemned to repeat them."