EDUC
610:
LECTURE
HIGHLIGHTS
EDUC
610:
LECTURE
HIGHLIGHTS
©
2007
WHY AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Education creates citizens who act as responsible, intelligent and productive members of a community. As our world becomes increasingly interdependent, this ideal citizen must also possess high levels of international competency.
International competency - is not any one view of the world, but the capacity to view, analyze and understand the world from a variety of perspectives.
There are many different cultures, sub-cultures etc. each of which have their own ways in which to teach and to learn.
CULTURE: Goodenough defines: "Culture consists of standards for deciding what is, standards for deciding what can be, standards for deciding how one feels about it, standards for deciding what to do about it and standards for deciding how to go about doing it."
Our world is comprised of many different cultures. Each of them being unique in the values they hold, the behavior they exhibit and the belief system which sustains them.
RECOGNIZE A DIFFERENT SCALE OF VALUES
(1) Differences are not barriers (2) Differences cause difficulty in communicating
1) no two things are identical
2) no one thing stays the same: time and space
3) It is not possible to tell all about anything: all descriptions are open-ended
4) beware of stereotyping, ethnocentrism and biases
5) seek our commonalities among cultural diversities
6) recognize a different scale of values
7) Same word may be used to represent different "realities" while similar events or experiences are sometimes called by different names
8) statement of opinions are often confused with statements of facts
9) Use descriptive terms rather than ones which express approval or disapproval. Avoid "either/or" evaluations
10) Use phrases that indicate uniqueness of culture, i.e. from our point of view, in our culture
11) Become more alert to ways in which cultural conditioning shape our value judgments.
12) UNDERSTAND THAT THE COMPLEXITIES OF CULTURE REQUIRE EXPERIENCE AND TIME
How we classify indicates how we relate to one another on different levels. This can be a form of communication, both positive and negative. Much of cross-cultural learning is based on assumptions of how we understand ourselves in relationships to others.
National Character Studies: identifiable traits for all people in a geographic region. Generalizes too much; does not account for culture/social change; does not account for time/space differentiation; does not account for group and sub-group differences.
3 THEORIES
1) DEFICIT - Wring assumption about genetic/culltural inferiority
2) SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY - Low Teacher Expectations
3) DISCONTINUITY - Disjunction between "home" and "school" and "peer" cultures
SOCIAL CHANGE - RECOGNIZING CHANGE IN CONSTANCY AND CONSTANCY IN CHANGE
ROLE OF SOCIALIZATION IN EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
Through the process of socialization, children learn the cultural knowledge they need in order to be effective in their physical, social and economic environment
WHERE
WHO
HOW AND WHAT
THE ROLE SCHOOLS PLAY IN SOCIAL REPRODUCTION
SCHOOL TEXTS ARE IMPORTANT SOCIALIZING AGENTS
STATE AND FEDERAL POLICY AS SOCIALIZING AGENTS
Formal - Non Formal - InFormal
F graded, hierarchy schools extra curricular peer group
NF certificates Systematic out-of-school participation
IN bush schools Parent instruction daily experience
Culture conflict exist when change is imposed upon a cultural minority. Oftentimes cultural minorities living in impoverished conditions develop adaptive socialization rules to insure their survival
Discontinuities and conflicts exist when expectations and values imparted by the family differ from those of the school
When children enter school, they must act according to norms which contradict a great deal of what they have learned before, master a body of knowledge completely foreign to them, and communicate in an incomprehensible language in a strange environment
CHECK LIST FOR CROSS CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
1) Are you familiar with the country's basic culture and history? Students family structure?
2) Are you aware of U.S. non-verbal forms of communication?
3) Are there non-verbal behavior patterns you use which may be interpreted as "offensive"
4) Can you anticipate some possible miscommunication problems
5) Are you aware of your others non-verbal behavior or communication pattern?
6) Do you know that others culture dictates as being appropriate in a social context? In a work context? In the family context?
7) Visit the community; Familiarize self with literature written by culturally diverse authors
8) Subscribe to ethnically diverse publications; Enroll in race awareness or cross-cultural workshops; Form professional relations with culturally diverse colleagues
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: Individual patterns of behavior are based on individual perceptions of the external world, which are largely learned.
The higher the degree of similarity of perception
a) the easier communication among them is likely to be;
b) the more communication will occur;
c) the more likely it is that this similarity will be recognized: identify groups will form.
However, even when people speak the same language, cultural differences can alter communication symbols and meanings:
1) Proximity/Space
2) Time and Time consciousness/sense
3) Dress and Appearance:
4) Food and Feeding Habits:
5) Roles and relationships:
6) Work habits and practices
7) Gestures, Grimaces, Signs
8) Others: shapes, colors, sounds, smells, art forms, body language
Cultural learning is not designed to make all people in the world alike, nor is it intended to teach that one set of values is better than another.
Through understanding from the point of view of another culture, you can make your own judgement about that culture with as little cultural preconception as possible.
Beliefs are culturally determined. They act as prisms - distort reality to view their way as "good" and other ways as "evil"
REALITY IS DISTORTED BY CULTURE
Universal Morality - Do the Ends Justify the Means? Where do you draw the line?
Is it that different cultures act differently - or is there a minimum standard by which to judge human-rights vs. national security rights?
Moral education can have religious or secular overtones and exists in all societies, without the concept of what is moral varies cross-culturally
CHARACTER EDUCATION - teaching of socially approved values regarding personal characteristics, attitudes and social relationships
CIVICS TRAINING - creating the citizen in both political and social terms
IDEOLOGICAL TRAINING - instilling the socially approved ideology to the members of that culture
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION - disseminating accepted political norms and beliefs
KEY FIGURES IN WESTERN EUROPEAN HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY
PLATO; ARISTOTLE ; JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI ; IMMANUEL KANT ; HERBERT SPENCER ; JOHN DEWEY ;
EMILE DURKHEIM; JEAN PIAGET - MORAL GROWTH THEORY; LAWRENCE KHOLHBERG
CONFLICT / RESOLUTION
Negotiate; Litigate (sue); Pressure (boycott; protest; strike; threat); Election; Compete; Force; Withdraw; Compromise
MORAL EDUCATION
a) Values and Education; b) Moral and Ethical Responsibilites of Teachers;
c) Development of Character; d) Church/State Separation;
Is the core problem with our schools moral?
How can we change this?
Do we need more Victorian virtures as Himmelfarb suggests
Discuss: "It is not a moral duty to save lives . . . schools role in minima" Delattre
"Technology has leveld our ethics" - will define 21st century.
What are ethics - shared values are now future glbal ethics
Global Ethics - Rushwood Kidder - Center for Global Ethics 1997
All cultures have versions of :
1) Truth
2) Fairness/Equity
3) Love
4) Responsibility/accountability
5) Resepect for diversity
What will our morall future be when there isn't enough work to go around?
Need for education of the wholee person
The core problem facing our schools is a moral one. All the other problems derive from it. Hence, all the various attempts at school reform are unlikely to succeed unless character education is put at the top of the agenda. If students don't learn self-discipline and respect for others, they will continue to exploit each other sexually no matter how many health clinics and condom distribution plans are created. If they don't earn habits of courage and justice, curriculum designed to improve their self-esteem won't stop the epidemic of extortion, bullying and violence, neither will courses designed to make them more sensitive to diversity.
William Kilpatrick: Why Johnny Can't Tell Right From Wrong
In the America of my youth, moral and ethical instruction wasn't a specialized line of study, something tacked on to the curriculum in a desperate effort to get young people's gyroscopes spinning properly. It was an intrinsic part of the national tapestry, the warp and woof of our lives. Jonathan Yardley: "The Old-Fashioned Way"
[I have come] to realize that my notion . . . was mistaken . . . The educator must be a socializer teaching value content and behavior and not only a Socratic or Rogerien process-facilitator of development . . . I no longer hold these negative views of indoctrinative moral education and in necessity, in a world in which children engage in stealing, cheating and aggression.
Lawrence Kolhberg (1978)
"Moral Education . . . is aimed at realizing a spirit of respect for human idgnity in the actual life of family, school and community, endeavoring to create a culture that is rich in individuality and to develop a democratic society and state, training Jpanese to be capable of contributing to a peaceful international lsociety, and cultivating their morality as the foundation thereof." (Official description of moral education in Japan (1983)
BELIEF SYSTEMS
Beliefs are culturally determined
Act as prisms - distort reality to view their way as "good" and other ways as "evil"
Restrict options and guide behavior towards those options
Rationalize and legitimize policy
define standard by which policy makers can justify their actions to themselves, to their country and to the world
Differentiate "us vs. them"
"Us" as superior to . . hostile to . . threatened by
VALUES CLARIFICATION
Philosophy that all should adopt an ethical or moral stance
Conscious commitment to the definition and pursuit of the humanistic values of peace,socio-political justice, economic well-being and ecological balance.
By fostering moral empathy on a global scale and by reducing the globally divisive factors, new types of empathic relationships can arise.
PROBLEM:
A) WHOSE VALUES WILL BE CHOSEN AS "THE ONE"
B) how can this be achieved without decreasing such factors as poverty, inequaity and discrimination?
REALITY IS DISTORTED BY CULTURE
Reagan believed that:
Soviet Union underlies all unrest in Nicaragua
Domino Theory - with the U.S. as the last domino
Hence, USSR was a moral threat to the entire new world
Based on this perception of reality:
U.S. supplied arms to Contra Rebels; mined Nicaraguan ports; sent troops to Central America to intimate the Sandinistas
Soviet Aggression as Perceived by the U.S.
USSR threat down Atlantic Ocean to Africa and Brazil;
From Cuba to Atlantic Shore and across Central America to Western U.S.
Down Siberian coast to Japan and to Southeast Asia
From Central Asia through the Middle East and India
U.S. Aggression as Perceived by the USSR
Western U.S. across Pacific to Japan then to Southeast Asia to India/Middle East
From Alaska to Siberia
From East Coast to Europe, North Africa to Middle East, to Africa to Middle East
Middle East then to Central Asia
IDEOLOGY
Ideology is powerful tool - can cause revolutions!
Most wars concern disputes over ideology
ETHICS
As world becomes increasingly interdependent - ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS become evident on every personal and private relationship
UNIVERSAL MORALITY
Natural Rights - people carry into society the same rights - right to life; rights that they had in a "state of nature" before communities were organized
Even Natural Rights are culturally determined:
Abortion, Feminicide
Do the Ends Justify the Means? Where do you draw the line?
Is it that different cultures act differently - or is there a minimum standard by which to judge human-rights vs. national security rights?
Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Assignation of Hitler - one person to save millions?
Assignation attempts at Libya's Muammar Quaddafi in 1986? Or Sadam Hussain?
Amnesty International - When do you NOT interfere?
Cultural Determination: Is it terrorism or liberation?
Availability of Weapons: defense or conquer?
Morality vs. Amorality
Is there a middle Ground?
Practical morality - reconciliation of morally desirable with what is politically possible
Results in few absolutes but many practical possibilities
Makes Ethics a component of decision making
FREEDOM - A MORAL VALUE?
Is freedom a preferred commodity? Gatsil Study (1990) found that of 167 countries
37% were free
26% were particularly free
37% were not free
1993 Russian survey showed that a majority of people in Moscow will gladly give up their "freedom" for food
MORALS
Understanding that our national and individual behavior and actions affect others and that we have a responsibility to act consistent with the basic rights of others
Morality is composed of one or more of many ideologies that belong to a specific culture
effective learning - norms, values and belief systems
Express a societies cultural identity
Moral education can have religious or secular overtones and exists in all societies, without the concept of what is moral varies cross-culturally
CHARACTER EDUCATION - teaching of socially approved values regarding personal characteristics, attitudes and social relationships
CIVICS TRAINING - creating the citizen in both political and social terms
IDEOLOGICAL TRAINING - instilling the socially approved ideology to the members of that culture
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION - disseminating accepted political norms and beliefs
Psychology and Education Fields - ideological and character training
Political Science Field - political socialization
20th century education concentrated more on personalism, pluralism and secularization and less on moral and character education. As signs of moral trouble become more rampant, character education is making a comeback.
Basic morality (Lickona) consists of
respect, responsibility, trustworthiness, fairness, caring, civic virtue
LOGICAL POSITIVISM - assertion that facts can be scientifically proven, while values are mere expressions of feelings, not objective truth
PERSONALISM - celebration of worth, autonomy and subjectivity of the person, emphasizing individual rights and freedom over responsibility
CHARACTER EDUCATION PARTNERSHIP - national coalition committed to putting character development at the top of the nation's educational agendas
WESTERN EUROPEAN HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY
PLATO's The Republic - Political education, i.e. Education that would strengthen the state, is define as being part of a broader education for moral justice
ARISTOTLE adds the influence of the family
RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION - religious education became closely connected with moral education
1600-1700 - moral education consists of a combination of family training, good environment and formalized education, resulting in the development of the ability to reason and to discipline one's self
18th and 19th century - nationalism became equated with moral education
JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) lay the foundation of modern elementary education: "the final aim of education - humanity - is only to be reached by subordinating the demands of our intellectual and practical capacities to the higher demands of morality and religion"
IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) - correct decisions can be reached via a "thought" experiment in which one asks oneself whether one's maxim can be raised to the level of a universal law. Piaget and Kolhberg build on this
HERBERT SPENCER (1820 - 1903) - formation of character is thee key facet of education
DEWEY - ethical and psychological principles can aid the greatest of all constructions - the building of a free and powerful character. Education for the whole child.
Moral Principles in Education (1911) - blending of scientific thought and purposeful value development in the learning process
EMILE DURKHEIM: morality begins with childhood. Learned & affected by societal value
JEAN PIAGET - MORAL GROWTH THEORY - combines elements of psychology with Durkheimian interpretation of moral education: stages of moral development correspond to specific cognitive characteristics held by childre of various ages. As children mature and gain greater experiences as members of society, they grow in their moral maturity and become more adept at seeing the world "as it is."
Theory only includes children up to the age of 12
JAPANESE MORAL EDUCATION
Japan - 3 C's (compared to U.S. 3 R/s). Connection, Character, Content
Build strong, positive emotional connection to school by emphasizing friendships, belonging and social development.
Japan's National Course of Study for Elementary Schools - divides moral education into 4 categories:
1) things related primarily to oneself as reflecting on ones life, having courage to do what one believes is rights, responsibility;
2) things related to others such as trust, considerate, friendship;
3) things related to nature and sublime feeling intimacy with nature;
4) related to group life and society and upholding one promises
RELIGION AND MORAL EDUCATION
1971 Lemon vs. Kurzman (1971) defined 3-part test forbidding any government action in areas that countered secular purpose; had a "primary effect of advancing religion" or fostered excessive entanglement between church and state.
1986 Court ruled that 1st Amendment was not violated when a Blind student used public scholarship to attend a Bible College.
1990 Court held that public schools must allow student religious clubs to meet on campus
1993 Court upheld right of Catholic high-school student to receive the services of a sign-language interpreter at public expense
1995 Court rejected an attempt by the University of Virginia to exclude a student newspaper with a religious message
1997 Clinton signed "Memorandum on Religion in Schools" proclaiming that the 1st amendment "does not convert schools into religious free zones" and need to develop guidelines on appropriate role of religion in public schools
1999 Senate approved that the 10 commandments MUST be posted in schools
1999 Texas State Supreme Court ruled that a student can lead the school in prayer before the football game.
Consequences:
Catholic schools controlling public schools?
Milwaukee and Cleveland vouchers?
George Bush II's vouchers?
New York Catholic Archdiocese taking control of 1,000 worst-performing schools
LAWRENCE KHOLHBERG
a) moral judgement is an integral part of the thinking process which offers daily
b) moral judgement is the only distinctive moral factor in moral development
c) moral judgement can be applied to universal principles.
STATE THEORY
1) level pass through a fixed sequence
2) stages are structural wholes
3) stages appear in a sequence that in principle is environmentally and culturally independent
4) stages can be placed not only psychologically but ethically in an hierarchical sequence
PROBLEMS
1) fails to distinguish difference between "right" and "wrong"
2) Difficulties encountered in training teachers to conduct discussion of moral dilemmas
3) Premise of "invariant sequence" - Simpson study illustrated sustained individual differences in moral levels
4) Older children DO REASON at higher levels than younger children. All other stages have been proven to be inaccurate
5) Last stage is not universally acceptable: justice is other only type of defensible morality - this is a form of neo-colonialism
3 MORAL EDUCATION THEORIES
(1) VALUES INCULCATION -teachers who are based on a prescribed universal code are encouraged to "give" students the correct values and moral answers by inculcating, instilling and fostering a specific ideology of morality to the child
OPPONENTS - moral education becomes unreflective and easily manipulated by the idden curriculum and by the vested interest of special interest groups. Children become indoctrinated rather than have the ability to make choices for themselves
(2) VALUES CLARIFICATION - individuals define their own values through self-examination
Helping students choose their values without imposing values on them. Howard Kirshcenbaum, Louis Raths
OPPONENTS: generalization of moral dilemma and use of unrealistic situations and experiences; problems with basic theory which maintain that one must choose a value from a variety of criteria
(3) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Kolhberg) stresses Socratic peer discussion of value dilemmas in an attempt to stimulate movement to the next stage of moral reasoning
OPPONENTS TO ALL 3 - moral education should be non-directive and that values contribute to moral education are political in nature
Backlash led by Lickoma, William Bennett, Edward Wynne and William Kilpatrick
Developmental Psychology - New CHARACTER Education
Can the NCE can reverse moral decline?
JAPANESE MORAL EDUCATION
Japan - 3 C's (compared to U.S. 3 R/s). Connection, Character, Content
Build strong, positive emotional connection to school by emphasizing friendships, belonging and social development.
Japan's National Course of Study for Elementary Schools - divides moral education into 4 categories:
1) things related primarily to oneself as reflecting on ones life, having courage to do what one believes is rights, responsibility;
2) things related to others such as trust, considerate, friendship;
3) things related to nature and sublime feeling intimacy with nature;
4) related to group life and society and upholding one promises
CON VIEW - Khon
Character Ed has become rote - memorized - not reflective and not open to critical commentary.
Are children behaving because they want to or because of the extrinsic reward attached to "good" behavior?
Opposed to "caught you being good" syndrome and award ceremonies - shows that good behavior is limited to only a few
Character Counts - (video) - demonstrated Deficit Theory - immoral, and bad behavior is not due to increasing unemployment, crowded conditions, lack of power but on individuals
whose characters are deficient.
Need to change the structure of the classroom - of society rather than to remake the students themselves
What are the goals of these values - stability and conformity vs. participation and critical response or empathy and skeptical
IF Germany had character education = would it encourage children to fight Nazism or to support it?
SOVIET MODEL
No stages
Multidimensional : family, school, workplace
Activity based
Self-growth - samo-obrazovania - to develop tseleustremlennyi - steadfast nature that included self-conceived responsibility and firm conviction
Vospitanie
Moral code of the "builder of Communism" - build communism, possess communist convictions, devoted to motherland, act on socially approved values, and have good of society at heart
Moral ed was combined with political/citizenship socialization and observed through youth groups
Universal components : patriotism, honesty, duty, social activity, virtuous, sincerity, helpfulness, reliability, honesty, soberness, modesty, courageousness, intolerance towards injustice, parasitism, dishonesty, careerism and money-grubbingness!
Pledge of YP:
" I, a YP of the USSR, solemnly promise in the presence of my comrades to warmly love my soviet motherland to live, to study and to struggle as Lenin willed as the communist party teaches. The rules to be observed are: love motherland and community party, prepare for membership in Komsomol, revere the memory of those who have given their lives in the struggle for freedom and well-bing of the motherland; friendly with children of all countries of the world; studies diligently and is disciplined and courteous loves to work and to conserve the national wealth; is a good comrade who is solicitous of younger children and helps older people ; grows up to be bold and does not fear difficulties; tells the truth and guards the honor of his detachment; strengthens himself and does physical exercises every day; loves nature; defender of planted areas and useful birds and animals; is an example for all children.
SOCIAL CARTOGRAPHY: PARADIGM : CANON - Philosophical world views
T. S. Kuhn: defines paradigms "way a scientific /professional community views a field of study; identifies appropriate problems for study; specifies legitimate concept s and methods. How to interpret and apply data.
EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS
1) What is education concerned with?
2) What values (positive and negative) are expressed?
3) Whose education? Who benefits?
4) What is being taught or not taught? To Whom? Age? Sex? Level?
5) What limits are found - diversity? Time? Equipment?
6) Positive or negative reinforcement? How many years?
KEY CONCEPTS
CLASSICAL HUMANISM Shared intellectual heritage not cultural differences. Emphasize intellect; Liberal Education . Paideai Proposal. Broudy; Hutchins; Adler; Dewey (to some extent)
STRUCTURAL/ FUNCTIONALISM Schools created by society to serve aims established by society. homeostatic, balance, evolutionary, harmony, democratic, equal, meritocratic. ed offers opportunities for mobility. Human Capital Theory. Psychological Reductionism. Modernization: micro developed/ underdeveloped. (Spencer; Durkheim; Tonnies; Parsons; Malinowski, Radcliff-Brown, Esinstadt, Kanel; Schultz, Denison, Eisenstadt)
Modernization Educators: Weber; McClellen/Rogers; Inkeles; Frerie; Coleman
CONFLICT/ CRITICAL Conflict inherent in society; is necessary for change. Education causes Stratification. evolutionary, scarce resources, inequality stratification, ed maintains a system of structures social inequality. Hidden Curriculum. Critical Pedagogy . Legitimation Theory . Liberation/Dependency. Modernization: macro(Bolino; Marx; Schermerhorn; Happle; Karabel/Halsey; Spring; Dahrendorf; Weber; Collins; Apple; LaBelle/White; Farrell; Giroux; Bowles/Gintis)Dependency/Liberation - (Carnoy; Dore; Case-Dunn; Rubinson; Bock; Friere; Altbach; Arnove)
PHENOMENOLOGY Reflective Assessment empowers. Incorporate more than one perspective. Holistic perspectives
FEMINIST Ed based on international capital and patriarchal control. Knowledge is valid when it comes from knower's specific position;evidence of gender inequality . Positionality
POSTMODERN MODERNIST
Rejects Modernism Rationality and Science
Knowledge viewed as positivist data but System for classifying societal data; also as integrated forms of culture
subject to validation not verification structuring of knowledge
Mini (small) narratives Meta narratives
Breakdown universal images Create universal images
Liberating influences transcend not only Obsessed and confined by time and history
combined time and history but T/H - parallel, if not the same entity
combined space and geography
Space is more important than time Time is more important than space
differentiation of space/time allows merging space/time distorts analysis
for deconstruction of society Of society
Deplore "must" imperative Highlight the "must" imperative
Emphasize multiple rather than majority rule Emphasize majority rule
NEW PARADIGMS: Response to problems with Structural/Functionalism and the Conflict Theories
Many have in time become known as neo-Structural/Functionalism or neo-Conflict
CULTURAL REVIVAL THEORIES: Consensus among deliberate organized conscious effort to construct a different culture (not
whole system). This occurs during ethnic revival, or counter-culture movements
UTOPIAN THEORIES: Anarchistic: radical social transformations. Process of liberation away from manipulation must come by replacing modern schools with "new formal educational institutions " which are convivial in nature
PHENOMENOLOGICAL (INTERPRETIVE) : Multiplie interpretations - Holistic persepctives
Educators: C. Delgado-Gaitan; G. Lopez; S. Velasco; Touraine; Paulston
FEMINIST : Knowledge is valid when it comes from an acknowledgment of the knower's specific position in any context, one always defined by gender, race, class, etc.
Teachers must play a socially transformative role in their classroom by helping students to "deconstruct" the dominant group's vision of social reality and justice and to replace dominant conceptions of knowledge with visions of social reality based on their own experience of it.
(Tetreault, 1993; Farganis; 1986; Code, 1991; S. Harding, 1991; Peggy Antrobus, Dale Spender and Birgit Brock-Utne; Nelly Stromquist "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education (1995)
POSTMODERNISM
European Voices: Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault; Pierre Bourdieu; Richard Rorty; Jean-Francois Pyotard; Gramsci; Nicholson; Coude, 1991; Habermas, 1971; Foucault, 1972; S. Harding, 1991; Rorty, 1989; Vygotsky
North American Voices: Dewey; Giroux, 1983; McClaren; Mem Fox; James Cummins; Stephen Krashen; Tove Skutnabb-Kangas; Rust
Latin Voices: Paulo Freire
Ours is a world, no longer of reality, but of simulation, where it is no longer possible to separate the real from the image. Postmodernism, helps understand these expanding conceptual presentations and interpretations.
OPPOSITION TO POST-MODERNISM
Opposition: L. Beyer and D. Liston "Discourse or Moral Action? A Critique of Postmodernism" Educational Theory 42, no. 4 (1992) and Bengamin Barber
Paulston is cautious! "how do practices we invent to discover our truth impact our lives? similarly expressed by
ELEMENTS OF INEQUALITY - RACE & DESEGREGATION & SEGREGATION
FOUNDATIONS OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
ETHNIC GROUP - socially defined on the basis of its cultural characteristics;
Inherently ethnocentric: non-members of ethnic group are "others" or "alien". Can have majority/minority relations between ethnic groups.
Cultural characteristics (language, class, history, religion, beliefs etc.) are perpetuated through several generations by socialization to prevailing cultural patterns and not by heredity
Strong tendency to organize politically around ethnic connections
Ethnic groups can reside within their own nation (leading towards nationalism) or can reside within another nation
ETHNICITY
Schermerhorn - "a collectivity within a larger society having real or putative common ancestry, memories of a shared historical past, and a cultural focus on one or more symbolic elements defined as the epitome of peoplehood."
Ethnicity includes language, religion, race and culture - and are often interlinked
Sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group implies existence of a distinct culture/ subculture whose members are bound together by common history, values, behavior
Religion, language, nationality, sex - variables that cannot be changed and are crucial to social identity and in turn affect one's opportunities, rewards and social roles
RACE - based on some biologically transmitted characteristic
Racial Stratification - social phenomena based on social rather than biological facts
Caste - particular system of rigidly separated categories within a social structure - the polar extreme of class
Although some mobility is evident, it is severely uncommon
Marginalization - based on race or other factors (i.e. Irish in Great Britain)
causes ghetto formation based on the physical and spiritual manifestations defined by the dominant group. Helps legitimate dominant group's power-base and maintain ideological friction.
Immigrant Groups: marginalized by legislation concerning status and nationality laws
multicultural typologies
Elizabeth Swing - Patterns in Dealing iwht Minorities in Europe
1) Separatism - These "others" have separate schools
Flemmish in Belgium
Language revival in Wales - 1988 - Welsh was taught to all children (law)
2) Segmented Pluralism - These "others" have separate schools
Ausländer in Germany (Turks) - aliens
3) Cultural Pluralism - Possible to produce bilculturalism through education. Intercultural is similar to # 2 but now has addition of interchange.
Bicultural identity in Falnders
Morrocans living in Antrep. However, only Morrocans are bilingual - Flemmish students are not.
Intercultural exploration in Francophone schools in Burussels
French textbooks reference to North Africa. Idea that both groups can learn from one another, but dominant group still controls what and how things are learned.
4) Ambiguous Assimilation - Bring ‘minoritiy" to equality
L'étranger in France (aliens) - bring Algerians into the curriculum. Knowedge of North Africa is provided to ALL children in France.
Hidden agenda of the National Curriculum in England - no allowances for language. All children establish brit-o-centric veiw in Englig. National curriculum of 1998 has an almost but not quite assimilated emphasis..
PRENTICE BAPTISTE
LEVEL I: PRODUCT
LEVEL II: PROCESS/PRODUCT: PROBLEM TO BE DEALT WITH
LEVEL III: PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION/PROCESS
JAMES BANKS:
1) Add-on
2) Ethnic Studies for Ethnic Minority Groups
3) Ethnic Problems
4) Cultures
WURZEL MULTICULTURAL PROCESS
monoculturalism * cross-cultural contact * cultural conflict * educational interventions * disequilibrium * awareness * multiculturalism
Robert Kohl - Cultural Iceberg
THIRD CULTURE KIDS ( TCK)
• Social Capital Theory Robert Putnam
increased social aspirations and inequality - social cohesion always
• World with Disappearing Frontiers
Who then defines what Capital is?
• 3rd culture is based on
school; host family; parents; caregivers; home passport; language
TCK's share
cross-cultural upbringing
High mobility
expected repatriation
TCK in Relationship to Surrounding Culture
FOREIGNER:
Look Different / Think Different HIDDEN IMMIGRANT
Look Alike / Think Different
ADOPTED:
Look Different / Think Alike MIRROR
Look Alike / Think Alike
Can a multi-cultural/ multi-racal child also be a TCK?
STATE AND FEDERAL POLICY AND MINORITY EDUCATION: BROWN VS. BOARD OF EDUCATION - REVISITED
1930s - 1960s - Development in African-American educational experiences
Highlighted inequality of educational opportunity
1) Deficit model - minority students were lacking . . . which accounts for relative lack of uccess - Psychological Reductionism; Culture of Poverty
2) Barrier Reduction Model - Segregated society created numerous barriers to school success that were financial, cultural, social and legal in nature. Eliminate barriers
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)
Separate but equal was wrong under the 14th amendment
Programs implemented to improve educational performance of minority students
Title I Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1964 (Deficit model)
Title VII bilingual education
Financial aid programs of Higher Education Act of 1965 (Barrier Reduction Strategy)
Adams v. Richardson (1970)
court-ordered busing for public school desegregation.
• Suburban School Desegreation
• By 1975 - the south schools were more integrated than the rest of the country
• Bradley v. Miliken (1975) forced busing in urban north
• US Supreme Court since 1990s has reduced much of the pressure to desegrated schools in that "schools can be releases from the lower court desegregation decisions if the districts have made good faith efforts and have eliminated, to the extent possible, vestiges of segregated facilities or practices.
1978 - Reverse discrimination vs. Affirmative action (consider racial and cultural backgrounds of students from groups that have experienced pas discrimination?
1978 Court case - rejected fixed admission quota but upheld more flexible affirmative action programs where individuals are considered without regard to race
20 years after Brown - years of delay in enforcing Brown decision
Resulted in de facto and de jure segregation. New legal emphasis on what constitutes unconstitutional segregation on the basis of race
Kozol: 1980s court rulings invalidated Brown
Wilkins: 1980s court rulings had setbacks, but Brown still "destroyed American
apartheid"
1960 - social change
1990 - new generation - 30 - year change cycle
We have now - what is known as the HIP-HOP GENERATION
U.S.A. - post-race - mixture of nations/races
We are multi-ethnic and social class - idealistic melting pot
All are equal if they wear the right clothes and rhyme
Cross-migration is changing all countries
The Richard Rodriguez Mexico of Catholic guilt is becoming American Protestant with hope!
Indians of Mexico with American ways and Satellite dishes and global ties is more post-modern than intellectuals living in Soho!
30% of L.A. who were engaged in 1997 were multi-cultural
68% of which involved a Latino
Latin American Pentecostal movement is similar to Islam movement
Break with past; extreme toward conservatism and Americanization - right-ring fundamentalism
Post-Chicano generation -upcoming .
New immigrants in new geographic area in former black areas
Acculturation is Afro-American and music/culture - more akin to Civil Rights and assertiveness
Post-Multicultural - EMPHASIZE CONNECTIONS
The Ethnic Quilt: Population Diversity in Southern California
James Allen and Eugene Turner (1997)
In L.A. due to continued high immigration - the need for inter-marriages remain low.
Networking is as important as educational attainment in landing job.
People recommend their friends for jobs - and friends come from their own ethnic group and from their own neighborhoods.
High concentration of Filipinos become lab technicians,
Mexicans operate sewing machines,
Blacks drive busses and deliver mail
Whites go into law and advertising
Guatemalans and Salvadorans paint houses.
There is also a 3rd space:
can't fit into primordial culture when assimilated
can't fit into national culture due to inequality
where then to exist?
It is the people in the marings that keep nation committeed to democracy
Cultural level - you need to first identify before you can identify on national level
National level - you need to be non-ethnocentric to help you get to the global level
Race is constructed as to which groups get power "Whiteness of a difference color"
Can we transwer "marginalized" from negative to positive word?
New conception of ‘race" based on place and time and class
CRITICAL AND NEO-CRITICAL PEDAGOGY - education as critical social action as well as education to assist with the struggle for hope and human emancipation (Henry Giroux)
Schools play a leading role in rebuilding the social order; teachers have responsibility o prepare students for a newly conceived social order; students must be taught about he social groups and races that control society so that they can be prepared for their role in the transformation of society. (Giroux)
Agrees with Dewey that education occurs in schools and throughout society at large (Giroux)
2004 and Beyond
• Test Score Gaps
• SAT & Race
• Fewer minorities applying to certain colleges
• Minorities are "Cascading" out of top schools and into second tier schools
• Admission programs - impact is not what they want
• Race and the Schooling of Black Americans
• Race and Race Relations: Denial about impact of Race
• NCLB
• Student Gap in Performance
• Graduation Rates
• Incentive Effects
• Demoralization and effect it has on grades
• Do Race-Sensitive Admissions Polities Harm Minorities
• Diversity of Diversity on Campus Life
• Effects of Racial Tensions in Society
• What is to be done?
• More vigorous recruitment
• consider class rather than race
• emphasize grades not test scores
America has tradition of bilingual and non-English language education - but it always operated in shadows of English-language domination.
As immigration increased - so did xenophobia. Tolerance for dual-language programs diminished. Issue did not revolve around efficacy of these language programs but rather what it meant to be a good American. Result was demands for cultural conformity extended to demands for exclusive use of English in both public arena and public schools.
1880 - most public schools adopted submersion models of language acquisition.
1890 - several states including New York and Massachusetts passed laws making English mandatory school language. 39 states passed similar legislation. By end of WWI, bilingual education ceased to exist.
Pre-1950 - education for different racial and cultural groups was separate and unequal.
1954: Brown vs. Board of Education: U.S. Supreme Court ruled that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal and unconstitutional
1970s: Demands to eliminate ethnocentric curriculum; develop "ethnic study courses"
1974 - U.S. Supreme Court decision (Lau vs. Nichols) established constitutional precedent for bilingual education
Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ensured supplementary services for all non-English speaking newcomers to America.
1997 - Goals and expectations for bilingual education (as seen by specialists and minority) correspond to shifting paradigms
Issue may no longer be one of bilingual education, but ideology of political forces outside the classroom
Ethno-math
Ethnic Quilt (Segregation for Choice) vs. Hip Hop Generation (Ethnic Mixtures)
What is Race?
THIRD CULTURE KIDS (TCK)
Foreigner: Look Different / Think Different
Adopted: Look Different / Think Alike
Hidden Immigrant: Look Alike / THink Different
Mirror: Look Alike/ Think Alike
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY (METHOD) (A. M. Villegas:)
1) teachers should know about and respect their students cultures
2) teachers must believe their students are capable of learning academically changeling material
3) teachers should view themselves as capable of making a difference in the lives of their students
4) effect teachers plan, implement and adapt enriched curriculum that links students' cultural experiences with instruction
5) teachers must manage their classrooms and value students in culturally sensitive ways
INEQUALITY AND EDUCATIONAL ACCESS
PERSISTENT INEQUALITY: Condition that has been traditionally accepted or even justified.
Way of keeping a group in an underclass while not necessarily victimizing them. "Justifications" include racism, religious bigotry, feuds and conquests of long ago
EDUCATION PERPETUATES OR ELIMINATES INEQUALITY
Education as an entity itself is in unequal distribution throughout the world
EDUCATION AS A TOOL USED TO DENY EDUCATION
Educators who write about inequality:
August Hollingshead - Elmtown's Youth
Lynds' Middletown: A Study in American Culture
Robert Havighurst - Growing Up in River City
Ray Rist: Student Social Class and Teacher Expectations (1970)
Willard WALLER - The Sociology of Teaching (1967)
JENKS - Inequality (1972)
ILLICH (1970)
Paulo FREIRE - The Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1973)
BOWLES & GINTINS - Schooling in Capitalist America (1977)
WALZER (1983)
CARNOY -
CARNOY & SAMOFF (1990) Education and Social Transition in the Third World
JONATHAN KOZOL
Myra & David Sadker: Failing at Fairness: How American Schools Cheat Girls
Barrie Thorne "Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School" extent to which gender segregation is controlled by children themselves
TECHNOLOGY - THE NEW FRONTIER FOR INEQUALITY
Technology has transformed education from the Art of Teaching to Art of Learning
What to Learn - Where to Learn - How Quickly to Learn
Those with the resources to learn -
Computers, satellites, INTERNET, will have considerable advantage over those who don't have resources
Question of access has never been so important
TRACKING: Practice of placing students in "ability groups"
GEORGE SPINDLER - Schools maintain and regulate social status through tracking
MEYER WEINBERG 1977 report: Minority Students A Research Appraisal gives a historical account of differential education stemming from racial and ethnic prejudice. Showed how minority groups were purposely "tracked" into lower groups because of their race/ethnicity.
Public Education has always been under attack. Critics were forever complaining how students have a lack of knowledge.
1943 The New York Times - Allan Nevins "a large majority of (college) students who'd that they had virtually no knowledge of elementary aspects of American history (and) c could not identify such names as Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson or Theodore Roosevelt...Some students believed that George Washington was president during the war of 1812... St. Louis was placed on the Pacific Ocean,
1950 - Arthur Bestor "Educational Wastelands: Retreat from Learning in Our Public Schools"
1963 - Richover "American Education - a National Failure"
1965 - Congress passed Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Title 1). Federal money to fund local schools.
1966 - big government study showed achievement is not closely related to increased spending. As a result Title I funds decreased substantially
REFORM IN THE 1980s
Single-focus, one-dimensional approach; quick fixes - choice, charter schools, etc.
Pedagogy of Poverty/Self-fulfilling prophecy to explain failures
Early 1980s - "Nation at Risk"
Is this an accurate portrayal or perpetuation of the Myth: Once a golden age of Education.
NATIONAL CURRICULA, STANDARDS AND EXAMS
To what extent should a local school's culture be consciously shaped by political , economic and ideological interests of the national government
STANDARDS
There is great similarities in standards between states. This could by default produce national standards by default! National policy, social and political forces, determines that which is considered to be an acceptable success rate in each country.
STANDARDS - official, written guidelines that define what a state expects public students to know and be able to do. Designs expectations and helps assess if they were met.
Teaching is the only professional occupation that has not been able to accumulate the documented knowledge required to perform the job at the expected standard. No data bank of best sets of instructions for students to master a learning task. Lack of written scripts, lack of time for individual instruction, lack of time for evaluation etc.
NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS
Using national examinations to evaluate success of teachers and schools as well as to dictate curriculum is more recent phenomenon dating back only 100-150 years.
Consequences of performance on national exams vary significantly from country to country.
Most exams have pen/paper formats wherein students respond to questions with calculations, short answers or appropriate choices. Some countries include oral responses. Most include math and national language/literature sections.
SCHOOL CHOICE: VOUCHER PROGRAMS
Christopher Jenks 1971 - educational voucher agencies. Parents present card to schools which given them certain amount of training annually
Schools reimburse with public funds according to the number of vouchers it collects. Schools are admitted into this system by agreeing to minimal standards
The U.S. Supreme Court has protected the rights of private and religious schools to exist. U. S. Constitution DOES NOT give parents a right to direct the education of their children
In some instances demands for choice stem from conservative groups opposing the curriculum and teaching methods used by public schools
While in the past opposition was on individual books, now opposition is on entire textbook series and school programs
HOME SCHOOLING
Response to public school lack of rigor, number of maladjusted graduates and anti-religious atmosphere of public schools. Many are not attacking pubic schools, but just want to be left alone. Balance of power between parents' interests and society's. Linked with choice controversy
SOCIAL CHANGE: INSTITUTIONAL MODELS
UNLIMITED CHOICE - voucher system that allows parents and students to select any school, public or private. Vouchers apply towards fulfillment of tuition requirements.
CONTROLLED CHOICE - choice within the public school system - magnet; charter etc.
ANTI-CHOICE - are there enough "good" schools to go around, best are in rich areas and cannot be afforded - even with vouchers; choice reduces teacher-empowerment
MAGNET SCHOOLS: Grew out of desegregation policies (1970s) with overall goal of improving educational quality
Schools that are built around common theme or method of instruction, where some students voluntarily attend and where they is some sort of racial/ethnic enrollment goal
OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
Teaching approach that will induce major changes. Approach leads students through "traditional, transitional and transformational" ones of performance
Goal is to make public school instruction more precise and its results more demonstrable
Students needs accommodated through multiple instructional strategies and assessment tools
PRIVATIZATION PROPOSALS
Frustration of slow place of public ed reform, privatization as a way to bring efficiency of the marketplace to education
It also considered a positive alternative to providing children with private school vouchers
EAI: EDUCATIONAL ALTERNATIVES INC.: private firm that manages public schools. Claims to provide more teaching materials, improved plan maintenance, teacher training in new techniques. Developed own curriculum
EDISON PROJECT: Plan by Chris Whittle for a nation-wide network of private, for-profit secondary schools with government tuition vouchers, longer school days and extended school years
CHANNEL ONE - Incorporate technology via Channel One (educational TV)
CHARTER: Public school K-12, organized by a group of teachers, community members, parents or others that are sponsored by an existing local public school board or a county board of education. The specific goals and operating procedures for the charter school are described in the agreement between the board and the organizers, however, the school is freed from most state statues and regulations.
1991 - Began in Minnesota with 11 other states following
100 charter schools in California
PROMOTING SOCIAL CHANGE: TEACHER'S ROLES
EFFECTIVE TEACHING IS STILL PRIMARY ISSUE
Modern physical plant does not insure success in learning
Being in school is not the same as being educated
It is teachers and parents, not equipment that count for success
Quality teaching goes unrewarded while incompetent teachers remain employed
John Goodlad's study (1983) found that teachers used a limited repertoire of pedagogical approaches. Strategies consisted mostly of their own talk and monitoring seatwork. Howard Gardner's study (1991) found similar conclusions
EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES
(A) PROCESS-PRODUCT RESEARCH: Research on the visible and audible behavior of teachers and students - the process and the objectively measured outcomes of teaching - the product. Began in the 1950s. Stress teacher self-development; empirical research; listening to what children have to say
(B) TEACHER THINKING RESEARCH: 1974 approach on teaching replaced process-product approach - teacher thinking. Cultivation of self-esteem in young people makes a good teacher
(C) PROJECT METHOD (William Kilpatrick): Progressive Philosophy. Teachers actively help students to develop active purposes in the pursuit of learning; integrated lessons in a defined project. School learning centers on student-developed "projects" that focus students' attention on purposeful, guided inquiry that directly relates learning to social life as well as to intellectual development
(D) PERSONAL VISION-BUILDING: Process of examining and reexamining why one becomes a teacher (self-inquiry). Life-long learning for teachers. Initial teacher preparation must be linked with continuous learning (mastery). Teachers must learn to combine a moral sense of purpose and skills in human relations to make a difference in schools (morality)
(E) REFLECTIVE TEACHING (Raines/Shadow) (post-modern interpretation). Reflection with no experience is sterile. Experience without reflection is shallow. Dewey would support - emphasis on reflection, teaching and action. Reflection is not a point of view (anti-theory) but rather a process of deliberativeexamination of the interrelationship of ends, means and contexts. Develops capacity for self-directed learning and through that reflection questions/tasks
CURRICULUM REVISION : 5 phases of curricular transformation
1) Absence of diversity is not viewed in terms of exclusion of others, but rather from standpoint that the prevailing perspectives represent an objective approach (i.e. Eurocentric is fact)
2) Focus on those who might reasonably be added (notable exceptions). The approach to the subject has not fundamentally changed
3) Ask why the absent groups have been absent - lack of success of these groups, Deficit approach than blamed the victim. The approach to the subject has not fundamentally changed
4) Ask questions from other perspectives. Study particular groups in their own right.. This creates new knowledge, which critically informs traditional views. Sometimes referred to as decentering the curriculum to create multiple perspectives in the creation of knowledge
5) Transformation of education, reflect rethinking of disciplines, methodologies, pedagogies .Curriculum change is not only what we teach, but how we teach and what we emphasize
REFORM VIEWS (John Holt, Paul Goodman, Ivan Illich, Charles Silberman, Egar Friedenberg; Theodore Sizer)
Portrays typical traditional school as mindless, indifferent dedicated to producing fear, docility and conformity that reflects a factory model of production and are foundations for behavioral approach to learning that dominated for past 50 years
Learners become alienated from established curriculum or learn to play the school "game" and thus achieve a hollow success. Attacks lectures, drills and tests.
Reform education stresses thinking skills; independent and creative thinking; curiosity driven curriculum. Interdisciplinary study not single-subject teaching to learn about real world
HOW students learn is the key. Emphasis on in-depth projects and exhibitions, not standardized testing
TEACHER AND TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTES ACCOUNTABILITY
1986 - Holmes Group report Tomorrow's Teachers - advocates stronger liberal arts and academic major preparation and the moving of education course form undergraduate to graduate level.
1987 - National Board of Professional Standards was established offering prospect of a higher level of certification and status enhancement for the profession
Report - Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1990) by National Council of Teachers of Mathematics calls for standards and evaluating quality of both student achievement and curriculum.
1990 - John Goodlad in Teachers for Our National's Schools - recommended autonomous "center of pedagogy" for teacher preparation, formation of school/university partnerships and collaborative establishment of professional development schools.
1995 - based on Goodland Holmes Group Tomorrow's's School of Education" has central message: "reform - or get out of the business". They wasn't greater accountability, higher standards, development of a substantial base of professional knowledge and more effective utilization of research to improve teacher performance.
Guidelines established by National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) are prompting numerous changes in exiting programs
REFLECTIVE TEACHING: Reflection - think about own perspectives
Do we teach reality as is or as was envisioned
Reductionist - this is basic reality - beyond all
Postmodern - language socially constructed - need more voices
Hermeneuticia - put representor into representation
Texts are metaphors for social life - meaning varies to interpretation
Do we bring the world into our students or impose our world on them?
QUESTIONS TO ASK SELF AS A TEACHER
1)How does my representation of teaching as a practice, my work, differ?
2)Am I assuming - taken for-granted positions in my teaching?
3)Do I privilege my own perspective over others?
4)Am I aware of the discourses that govern my teaching world?
5)Am I aware hat there is a view just outside my frame of vision, seeking to control what I represent? - there are several viewers - male, white, female, able, Anglo-American, heterosexual, over-educated . . .
The best I can aim for is to acknowledge them as I produce my own vision of my world - to see them from the corner of my eye as I bring to consciousness my world views, acknowledging the presence of others - different, but not others. Acknowledge the political awareness of my own journey (Chapman)
There are no ideal situations, just awareness.
JOINFOSTERING - Christain Faltis, 1997. Based on Vygotsky's theory of learning - emphasis on input in language acquisition.. It extends beyond the classroom to encourage interactions to increase interactions which draw parents into the school setting.
1) Learn about parent's daily experiences.
2) Social integration and interaction of students. Ensure 2-way communication between teacher and student and among students regardless of multicultural diversity
3) Invite parents to participate - in their own language. Thoughtful integration of second-language acquisition and the content of instruction and lessons planned to foster new subject-matter knowledge
4) Enable parents to make decisions. Active participation of learners community
5) Empower students to promote awareness, critical consciousness. Oppose social stratification and actively promote equality - emancipator knowledge, the self-reflection that reveals self-knowledge or emancipation which comes through critical consciousness as defined by freire. Example; let parents get TA positions - change career ladder.
EXAMPLES OF REFORM PROGRAMS
ACCELERATED SCHOOLS MOVEMENT (LEVIN, 1995)
COOPERATIVE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (STEVENS & SLAVIN 1995)
ESCUELA NUEVA: FROM TEACHING TO LEARNING (SCHIEFELBEIN, 1992)
THE IMPACT (PHILLIPPINES) AND PAMONG (INDONESIA) PROJECTS (SANGER, 1979).
THESE FOUR CASES show that teaching time is mainly allocated to facilitate the students learning process rather than to broadcast facts, concepts or instruction. Routine information is presented in self-learning modules, teacher can handle several groups of students at the same time. Self-instructional texts have supplementary materials and free choice activities as well. Common facilities and strategies further educational group - activity centers, classroom library, group work, child to child tutoring etc.
These processes introduce children to civic and democratic life by electing and participating in student groups and children also learn to act with authority and responsibility in the process.
Who has access?
What range of quality?
Who has knowledge to utilize technology and make technology work for you?
Art of Teaching to Art of Learning
Cultural, EThnic, Racial and Gender Inequities:
Differential Access; Differential Use; Differential Perceptions; Differential OutcomesInequities Beyond Access
Persistent Inequality
Theory of Last Entry
Learning Revolution
Access . . . What else is important?
Switch in Learning Paradigms
Hidden Curriculum Biases
Technology Issues
Persistent Inequality
Condition that is traditionally accepted or justified as a way to keep a group in an underclass while not necessarily victimizing them.
Contemporary Consequences: Differential Access to Technology
Point of Last Entry
Learning Revolution: We are in the Information Age!!!
Industrial Age - Previous Age - Information Age - Started in 1995Learning Components
Perpetual Learning; Educational Roles ; From Provider ; To Facilitator, Navigator, DeveloperCulture Addicted to Learning!
Everyone learns at different rates and in different contexts - need to change teaching to reflect this diversity
Access
Who has actual access to computers; Presence of quality computers; Ample access to those computers; Who has opportunity to learn computers; Knowledge to utilize computers; Knowledge to make computers work for youCurriculum Biases
How computers are used?; Do students control technology or does technology control students?Switch from Art of Teaching to Art of Learning
What to Learn - Where to Learn - How Quickly to Learn ; Learning Paradigms Switch; Learner Objective; What do you want to get from learning?Learning Venue - Where do you learn?
Learning Method - How do you learn?
Lecture, recitation, stimulation, seminar, experimentation, audio, projects, tests, etc.
Learning Content
Delivery of package
Technology Issues
Resources for Technology are Resources to Learn
Question of Access has Never Been So Important - New Frontier for Inequality
Reflections on Diversity: Cultural, Ethnic, Racial, Gender
Differential Access; Differential Use; Differential Perceptions; Differential Outcomes
Race/Ethnic Inequality : Unequal access by those of color
Inequity persists despite classMarked differences between personal use:
In cases of no home computer, Whites were still more likely to use a computer at non-traditional locations: library, cyber cafes, community centers, friends . . .
Marked differences in content
Gender Inequality
Boys Still Dominate in Advanced Computer Classes; Computers are the "New Boys Club"; Difference is in access and use of technology - not in ability; Girls are liberated through on-line discussion; This taps into fundamental learning differences:; girls like to take more time to consider what they are going to say before they say it; Utilization Inequity; Boy Oriented Games ; Die and Start Over ; Shoot Down . . . ; Computer Use; Focus on computers as machines; materials - as the tool itself; Group Dynamics:; Mouse Keepers; have the power to control; Girl Oriented Games; Make-Overs; Deal life's problems; Computer Use; Function of computers; context - research tool ; Group Dynamics: ; Keyboard Operators: lack power to make decisions; Gendered Classes; Do they prepare girls for our Sexist World?; Do they; give girls a chance to shine?; Do girl games/classes empower or perpetuate diminished personas?; Repression or Liberation?; Culture of LearningEducation: Social Reform or Social Maintenance?
Role of Schools in Transforming Technology to Become a Tool for Empowerment; Reform Strategies; Allow Teachers to Become Comfortable with Technology ; Purpose of Technology ; Drill and Kill, Problem-Solving, Exploration and Creativity; Add-on or integrated into curriculum; Give Teachers the Skills to Integrate Technology Throughout the Curriculum; Give Schools Resources, Staff, Time to Provide Quality Training; Schools Must Increase Awareness of Gender, Racial and Ethnic Inequities as they Relate to Technology; Technology: Echoes of Inequality ; No real proof to improve teaching and achievement; Provides an artificial experience; Dilutes attention to language; Children who write on computers do not link ideas; Hyper-Text minds - no building of sequential reasoning; Over-Controlling - lack of real choices; Internet Isolation - communicate with screen - not with "real people in real situations"; With Current Budget Constraints - Why give priority to technology over other studies? ; Justification in light of cuts to desks/chairs, libraries, music, sports, textbooks . . . ; Just Another Glamorous Tool - Will go the way of other multimedia in the classroom: Radio, TV, Video; Outdated hardware, unused software are common because it is too complicated, frustrated or poorly correlated to the curriculumTechnology: Promises of Hope
Information Technology excites, enhances and delivers superior quality of education; Computers improve teaching practices ; Computers improve student achievement; Internet provides students with valuable connections; Computer literacy should be acquired early - or students will be left behind; Technology programs leverage support from business community ;Future Concerns
Is Technology an Effective Catalyst for Educational Reform?
Is Computers Use Synonymous with Good Teaching?
Does Technology Promote Critical Thinking?
How Much Information Can we Tolerate?
The Best Technology Cannot Make an Irrelevant Curriculum Successful
ELEMENTS OF
INEQUALITY - GENDER
FEMINIST PARADIGM
Countering traditional functionalist/Marxist and structural/functionalist perspective
Which pursue education based on international capital and patriarchal control With its dangerous agenda,
which attempts to create and manipulate an individualized, fragmented and disposable labor force.
POSITIONALITY - important aspects of our identity (gender, race, class, age) are markers of relational positions rather than essential qualities
Their effect and implications change according to context
Knowledge is valid when it comes from an acknowledgment of the knower's specific position in any context, one always defined by gender, race, class, etc. (Tetreault, 1993; Farganis; 1986; Code, 1991; S. Harding, 1991)
Out of whose subjectivity has this ideal grown?
Feminist economics - more reflective analysis - use of "techno-structure" as a social mechanism of control, one that makes no distinction between life-enhancing and life-destroying production and consumption.
A feminist critical reflection is essential in assessing the social costs of military and structural violence and their impact on the confining low economic status of even educated women.
Teachers must play a socially transformative role in their classroom by helping students to ‘deconstruct" the dominant group's vision of social reality and justice and to replace dominant conceptions of knowledge with visions of social reality based on their own experience of it.
Feminist theories: Peggy Antrobus, Dale Spender and Birgit Brock-Utne; Nelly Stromquist "Romancing the State: Gender and Power in Education (1995)
The dominant social class, gender, and cultural forces in society exercise effective control over the lives of subordinate social groups, such as cultural minorities, women, etc.
Depending on the definition of women's rights and needs, different paths to social equity have been identified. Women enjoy fewer civil rights than men because "liberty" is construed as public rather than private
Many countries women cannot own property/work, are not equal before the law
Power is not always power OVER but also power WITH. And it is not only public but mostly private
Relational power occurs within a micro level - particularly among relationships that emerge within the family (adding Stromquist with Michel Foucault)
Events and situations within family that are marked by oppression and social control - ranging from wife battering to surveillance of women's physical movements to dissuading girls from pursuing nonconventional fields of study.
Very few capitalist countries have enacted legislation to improve the condition of women in and through education
The only state that sponsored a comprehensive examination of education from a gender perspective is Tanzania. The study was sponsored by external influences of Sweden and implementation has still to be assessed.
Disparity between girls and boys in primary school. High rates of withdrawal from schooling by girls. Problem of access is a serious one.
UNESCO - 3 our of 4 illiterate people in LCDs are women
U.S. - curricular change to remove sexual stereotypes - while states would like to offer a nonsexist education, they do not go so far as instituting an antisexist education.
ECOFEMINIST PERSPECTIVES
Feminization of Poverty: is becoming increasingly structure and impossible for women to escape the cycle of crushing poverty in Africa
Just under half of all African women and 63% of pregnant women suffer from anemia
Women in LDCs work twice as many hours as men do, for one-tenth of the income
Drought and debt have triggered large-scale male migrations to cities, leaving one-third of all rural households headed by women - in regions of sub-Saharan Africa - up to 43% of all households are headed by women - but with no ownership
Liberal Feminist Theory - existence of gender inequality and social, economic and political practices that reinforce such inequality. - largely ignored in theoretical literature
Sociology of Special education - largely ignored in theoretical literature
Need to go beyond holistically analysis - must perceive time in one or more modes: things may exist independently or in relationships with other different settings
Inability to conceive of social space as being relational and dynamic hinders our range of perception regarding group conflict and group interaction
Unwillingness to consider the way in which the body is treated on everyday basis limits ability to examine issues of identity, personhood, social construction and potential transformation.
GENDER INEQUALITY ISSUES
GENDER INEQUALITY
Although Federal anti-discrimination legislation has been on the books for 20 years, gender-specific differences in school and workplace experiences continue to have a disproportionately negative effect on females
deal with "evaded curriculum" or what is not taught to most girls that they desperately need to know, i.e. adequate instruction in sexual and health matters, incest, rape and other physical violence
All American girls face barriers to equal participation in school and society.
Girls' self-esteem, self-confidence and ambition deteriorate the longer they stay in school
By end of high school, girls typically fall behind boys in math, sciences and self-esteem
The gender gap in science, in terms of numbers of girls and boys taking science classes in high school is not declining. There is more equality when comparing SES common groups
Adequate sex and health education for girls is the exception rather than the rule
The most important variable affecting access to educational resources and outcomes is SES status of student
In American classrooms, girls receive significantly less attention from teachers than do boys. Are experiencing increasing levels of sexual harassment in schools. African-American girls have fewer interactions with teacher s than do white girls, even through they attempt to initial interactions more frequently than white girls. Competitive teaching methods work to the disadvantage of girls
Myra and David Sadker "Failing at Fairness: How American schools Cheat Girls": wealth of data. Work has been criticized for downplaying the real progress women have made in education an other professions in recent decades and for offering outdated data
Barrie Thorne's "Gender Play: Girls and boys in School" extent to which gender segregation is controlled by children themselves
Affirmative Action - In Fortune 500 firms, women compose 5% of managerial and executive positions - almost all are white
Textbooks - how are women in history and in present-day society portrayed
"Gender bias begins in the home. It is deeply embedded in the popular culture. You can see it regularly in the movies and on television. The place you are least likely to encounter it, however, is in the schools, where students are accustomed to seeing women in positions of authority." (Diane Ravitch)
AAUW Report claims that girls receive less attention than boys; girls are discouraged from pursuing higher-level math; girls are less apt to see themselves reflected in course materials
CON - THERE IS NO GENDER INEQUALITY
Kramer sees that the AAUW report is unfounded and misleading, self-serving and anti-intellectual
Kramer (anti) claims that AAUW report want to persuade people that the trouble with schools is gender based when it really is bias against academic achievement
"The gender equality act is a textbook example of congressional gullibility in relaying on students done by special interest groups" (Christina HoffSommers)
GENDER INEQUALITY IS NOT AN ISSUE
Diane Ravitch: "Gender bias begins in the home. It is deeply embedded in the popular culture. You can see it regularly in the movies and on television. The place you are least likely to encounter it, however, is in the schools, where students are accustomed to seeing women in positions of authority"
Christina Hoff Sommers: "The gender equality act is a textbook example of congressional gullibility in relaying on students done by special interest groups"
SINGLE-GENDER EDUCATION
Single-gender schools - how are they justified? Sex-segregated schools have been found to not be subject to the Brown ruling if such schools are of equal quality to non- sex-segregated schools and if attendance is voluntary
Single-sex schools. Need to have same rules for different classes. Opposes victimization theory which claims that girls are victims and boys are victimizers? Opposes AAUW report alleging gender bias in schools.
culturally conservative remedy increasingly popular with embattled minorities. "Get back to things that worked" - single-sex separating?
Girls are expressing more anger, annoyance and frustration in school and with school - of school policies that left them feeling unsafe or uninformed; a general air of sexism or stereotyping.
Cons to single-sex schools. It fosters generalizations and stereotypes based on gender. The idea that girls and boys inevitably distract each other is enormously dangerous.
THE EFFECTS OF SEX-GROUPED SCHOOLING ON ACHIEVEMENT: THE ROLE OF NATIONAL CONTEXT
David Baker, Cornelius Riordan and Marilyn Schaub, CER vol. 39, no. 4 1995
Achievement is not based solely on single or mixed sex classroom:
but on national context
Systems with more even mixes of sex grouping among schools show little or no between sector achievement differences in contrast to systems with uneven mixes
Single sex groups are more advantageous for females but not males (Thailand, Japan, U.S., Nigeria)
Single sex schools in Japan have low achievement for both sexes. In Japan, single-sex schools were a way for daughters of wealthy to stay within the upper classes while at the same time avoiding the extremely difficult competition of the most elite an disallow public universities
In countries where single-sex schools are not necessarily connected to future educational opportunities (Belgium and New Zealand) no difference
When single sex schools are perceived as very distinct from average school -rates of achievement are more
EXAMPLES OF GENDER INEQUALITY
Affirmative Action - In Fortune 500 firms, women compose 5% of managerial and executive positions - almost all are white
Textbooks - how are women in history and in present=day society portrayed
Single-gender schools - How are they justified? Sex-segregated schools have been found to not be subject to the Brown ruling if such schools are of equal quality to non-sex-segregated schools and if attendance if voluntary
Cut-back of social structures and services that provided spaces for advancing women and ethnic minorities - result of conservative governments of 1980s & 1990s in England, Australia, New Zealand and U.S.
CURRICULUM - WHAT WE TEACH - HIDDEN
CURRICULUM
CENTRIC-CURRICULUM
pro-Afrocentric curriculum
Asante - relevancy of curriculum to student - both of color and for all
con-Afrocentric curriculum
When intentionally exaggerates differences, likely to exacerbate racial and ethnic tensions
Apartheid curriculum - certain groups will learn about self (which is O.K.) At same time will not learn about the mainstream - which will forever keep them from assimilating
Schlesinger - culture of ethnicity produces "bad" history & teaching myths as facts - under whatever ethnic banner
Hidden Curriculum
HOW AND WHAT
What is being taught - complex
Conventional transmitters - formal curriculum and textbooks
Hidden Curriculum (Covert transmitters)
Teachers' perceptions and attitudes
Pattern of gender differentiation within classroom interactions
Schools' Authority Structure
Teacher/Student interaction patterns
Educational expectations
Continuity/Discontinuity
1972 Civil Rights Act Title IX prohibited sexual or racial discrimination. Results in greater gender equity.
What continues today is gender-based harassment - unwanted and unwelcome sexual words or actions that can begin as early as elementary years.
Deficient harassment and understanding gender-based harassment
materials that are not placed in textbooks under guise of "religion", "sex" or philosophical orientation
• Role of Fundamentalist in this process
LEGITIMATION THEORY: curricula embody ideals/values of dominant groups in society in both over and in forms of Hidden Curriculum (Apple). Why are certain curriculum found in some schools and not in others?
School reproduce inequality in society (Apple)
Karabel/Halsey - schools reinforce inferior position
Education provides "hidden services" to certain classes, "hiding social selection under the guise of tracking".
SORTING PROCESS: schools and I.Q. tests sort students into different tracts (Spring)
TIMSS
Third International Matematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Fall 1996.
TIMSS assessed more than 500,000 students, ages 9, 13 and 18 in 40 countries.
US JAPAN
No ability grouping Ability grouping in 8th grade
Higher-level math studies different material than All students study same material
lower-level math
No comprehensive 8th grade exam Comprehensivve 8th grade exam
More homework and more class time discussin it Less homework
Heavy TV watching Less TV watching
8th grade math content is at a 7th grade level in Japan
Lack of nationally defined curriculum Nationally defined curriculum
FOURTH INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE SUTY (TIMSS) 1997
involved more than a half million seventh and eight grade students from 45 countries. Singapore scored highes followe by Czech Rpublic, Korea and Japan. U.S. scored slighly below average in math and slighly above average in science. TIMSS study noted that
US students do more homework than students in other countries yet scores are the same or worse
Students around the world watch about the same anmount of TV
Ed Standards:
Germany - de facto national standards - degree of comparability across the states in the structure of schools , in the school-leaving examination and in the credentials for certifying completion of the school
Japan - ministry develops national curricular guidelines that define ed standards. No effort to define exactly what should be taught at each grade but general description of what is expected to accomplish during the year
US - no federal level developing and enforcing uniform standard
Textbooks
Germany - must conform to state guidelines and be approved by state committee
Japan - Ministry exerts influence by controlling content
U.S. - no control
Teacher Training -
Germany - 4-5 years of university study, weeks of observation in school, teachers take First State Exam. Then 24 month assignment as student teacher then 2nd state exam
Japan - 4-year university undergrad program, teachers visit schools, write lesson plans and 2-4 weeks in student teaching. Those who find a position are assigned a mentor. New teacher must visit teachers resource center a certain number of days each week
US - liberal arts program for first 2 years and then transfer to college of ed to complete undergraduate program.
Individual difference-
Japan - teaches for motivation and ignores individual difference
Germany - first 4 years - egalitarian - and then sever tracing
• longer Americans stay in school, the farther they fall behind their counterparts in most industrialized nations
• US makes an average effort to finance education, but because its capacity for funding (we are a rich country) is so high, an average effort is not good enough
• 25% of TIMSS questions reflect topics that are not studied by American test takers
• 20-33% of science & math middle and high school teachers in US are teaching out of licence, and half of those certified to teach, are not qualified to teach the courses they teach
• Larger proportion of US teachers quit the profession in the first 5 years which depletes that pool of skilled teachers
• Textbooks that cover too much
• Student poverty among US students is the highest (21-25%) and is nearly 50% more than other industrialized countries. Next comes Australia with 14% and Canada with 13.5%. Since poverty correlates with negative student achievement this is significant
• What to do?
• Classical Humanist vs. Post-Modernist
TRACKING
Practice of placing students in "ability groups"
Introduced into American education in early 1900s
Begins with kindergarten
GEORGE SPINDLER - Schools maintain and regulate social status through tracking
MEYER WEINBERG 1977 report: Minority Students A Research Appraisal gives a historical account of differential education stemming from racial and ethnic prejudice. Showed how minority groups were purposely "tracked" into lower groups because of their race/ethnicity.
This and other reports of it's kind began the backlash on tracking.
CURRENT EXAMPLES
In Utah, federal records show that the same test scores that identified some students as "limited English proficient" (LEP) were used to identify others as learning disabled. Hispanics were LEP, while Native Americans who spoke Navajo or Ute were learning disabled.
1995 - new law suit in New York claiming that "tens of thousands of children are "languishing in poorly run bilingual programs. American-born children with Latino surnames and low test scores are consigned to Spanish -language classes even if their dominant language is English.
TRACKING PROPONENTS
Enables less capable students to not suffer from competition with bright students;
Makes teaching easier;
Fair and equal opportunities should consist of appropriate schooling experiences for individual students - therefore ability grouping is an essential means for effective education
Promotes overall student achievement
Accommodates individual differences while making "high-status knowledge" available to all
Tracking - placing child to an ability group at one point in the child's school experience will greatly influence later grouping decisions; therefore, the practice should be use only when there is a clear educational justification and an absence of other alternatives.
"Appropriate tracking" (Nevi) - has as its central aspect the use of low-level tracking only for the purpose of providing remediation for students who need it.
Supports inclusion of all students in challenging, high-quality class environments
Current emphasis in education is on individual learning styles (modalities) and need for there to be a responsibility for educators to address those differences.
Tracking becomes an important tool for addressing those individual needs.
Billlingual Education - is the ultimate form of tracking utilized in our schools today
TRACKING OPPONENTS (Kean)
Even though a conscious effort has been made to "equalize" opportunities - the educational race is still rigged.
Structure of school, particularly its tracking and sorting function, is designed to assure the success of some at the expense of others
Involves group students by some ill-defined criteria of ability
Does not merely reflect differences but also causes them; Exaggerates initial differences
Contributes to mediocre schooling for those placed in middle or lower tracks
Even when minority students score well on tests, they still tend to be placed in the lower tracks
Other claim that homogeneous grouping has a detrimental effect on achievement and social development for students in low and intermediate tracks; for students sin higher group, achievement effects are negligible
Differentiated structure ofschoolingg results in barriers to achievement for poor and minority students
Oakes/Lipton
Tracking, the assessment practices that support it and the differences in educational opportunity that result from it limit many minority students' schooling opportunities and life chances.
Schools rely heavily on test results to form and legitimate their judgement about students' intellectual capacities and determine that African-American and Latino students far more than others, having learning deficits and limited potential. Not surprisingly, then, schools place these students disproportionately in low-track, remedial programs that provide them with restricted educational opportunity
Middle School tracking - less a method than a curriculum itself.
high track - more emphasis on competent and autonomous thinkers
low track - mor emphasis on conformity to rules and expectations, discipline
Tracking creates racially unbalanced classes in elementary, middle and high schools
Pervasive stereotypical expectations that society and schools hold for students of different race/ethnic groups (i.e. Latino parents don't care much about their children's school achievement and are unlikely to help their children at home)
schools track teachers - less experienced get low tracks!
PRO-TRACKING
Nevi - tracking accommodates individual differences while making "high-status knowledge" available to all
Less capable students suffer from competition with brighter students; tracking makes teaching easier; tracking promotes overall student achievement
"Appropriate tracking" as advocated by Nevi - has as its central aspect the use of low-level tracking only for the purpose of providing remediation for students who need it
TRACKING ALTERNATIVES
Robert Slavin's Alternative : "A Theory of School and Classroom Organization" (1987)
Instead of tracking Emphasis on Cooperative Learning Strategies
Necessary alternate norms re individual/group learning capacity differences are unlikely to be sustained if teachers and students lack working conditions and learning conditions to support them
Rich, Complex Curriculum - with inquiry, experimentation -holistic emphasis
Broadening assessment and altering teachers' roles and responsibilities
New Norms - redefine the capacity to learn
New Practices that Embody New Norms -
Alternate norms re individual/group learning capacity differences are unlikely to be sustained f teachers and students lack working conditions and learning conditions to support them
Students working Together - gains can be made in heterogenous groups of students
Rich, Complex Curriculum -
Broadening assessment -
Engagement in a process of inquiry, experimentation - holistic emphasis
Alterations in teachers' roles and responsibilities
Persistence over the long haul that is sustained by risk-taking leaders who are clearly focused on scholarship and democratic values
• Tracking vs. Detracking
• Low Test Scores & poverty
• Consequences of race/gender inequalities
• Gifted Issues
• AP Classes
• SAT
• Vocational Issues
• Higher Educational Issues
De-Tracking
• It is easier to teach homogeneous groups
• High achieving students - want to be placed together
• By middle school and high school - the gap between the top third and the lowest third is extremely wide and teachers cannot accomodate this range of student abilities.
• Philosophy of democracy - differences in ability can become assets in the classroom rather than liabilities.
• High ability benefit from separate groups becuase curriuclum/instruction are tailored to their abilities
• Detracking - upgrade the curriuclum and offer more honors and Ap course vs. tracking as elitist and raceist
• ability grouping rrely adds to overall achievement in a school and does contribute to inequality
• homogenous grouping is harmful to low-achieving students in terms of self-esteem and reduced work productivity
• wide range of abilities and aptitudes of poor, disadvantaged, immigrant children - tend to be ignored in a homogenous system
• Gifted and Talented
• post-Sputnik & today - remains the same: "a very small percentage of the GATE was being serivced by existing programs
• no special budget for GATE
• no federal legislation
• lack of trained personnel
• prevailing philosophy: they are smart enough to get by on their own and do not need "extras" in terms of support
• Yet 15-20% of GATE drop out of school due to boredom, drugs , etc.
ISSUES IN EDUCATION - HIGHER
EDUCATION
Research - brings in grants, high level professors and prestigue
Community College
• workforce development
• college access & opportunity
• remedial education
• general education
• Student protests & demonstrations in the 1990s: "identity politics" or the tendency to compartmentalize issues bsed on identification with a particular group - is the basis for these demonstrations
• Multiculturalism - focues on diveristy and respect for each other's differences ad well as a movement to overcome societal barriers that cut across groups
• changes in technology
• "knowledge" business
• higher ed, like mass education is to provide universal access and is no longer for the elite in most countries
• cross-national comparisons of issues at hand
• Current educational system in the US is failing children - both those who want to go to college and those who do not
• Ignoring jobs and their needs
• Focusing on Academics - but ignoring soft skills
• Forcusing on internatial movtivation - but ignoring external motivation
I pledge allegiance, to the beauty of the earth
and for the universe to which it belongs
many races, many places, illuminated by the sun
with adequate food & shelter for all