DESCARTES NOTES

Historical Background

At the time Descartes was writing, there was a tension between Natural Philosophy (science) and theology (religion).

Aristotle (300 B.C.) gave us an empirical approach to the natural world. The only relevant objects of investigation are those things found in the natural world, which includes ourselves. Further, everything in the universe could (theoretically) be explained in terms of purposes. (Emphasis on reason.)

Then along came the Judeo/Christian/Muslim concept of God (100-1200 A.D.). On this view, TRUE knowledge comes only through faith. The only relevant object of our investigation is and ought to be God, and we cannot come to knowledge of Him through any empirical means. Everything in the universe could be explained in terms of God.

Then along came Aquinas (mid 1200's), who attempted to provide a synthesis of the two views: he integrated the natural philosophy of Aristotle with an understanding of the theological world. He thought there were two independent, but equally important, ways to the truth: faith and reason.

But then natural philosophy changed once more, becoming less satisfied with the Aristotelian, purpose-filled picture of the world, and it turned into mechanism: the view that all natural things can be fully explained by the concepts of matter and motion.

B.   Theology

1.   What about humans and souls?

2.   What about God?

Descartes' Methods

Descartes was a foundationalist about knowledge = all knowledge should rest on a firm (indubitable) foundation.

He identifies knowledge with absolute certainty (indubitability).

So he considers all of his present opinions and beliefs and claims to knowledge to see if they can be doubted (a method of radical skepticism). Why?

1. The Historical Reason:

2. The Mathematical Reason:

3. The Personal Reason:

So how does the Method of Doubt work? Start with an example of a particular kind of belief. Can it be doubted? If yes, throw out all beliefs of that kind; if not, then keep it as your foundation.

Meditation I: The Three Doubts

What knowledge-claims survive the General Sensory Doubt?

1. Dream experiences are almost always deceptive.
   
2. Sleep and waking cannot be distinguished by any certain signs.
   
3. Thus, for all I know, any particular experience could be a dream experience.
   _____________________________
   
4. Thus, for all I know, any particular experience could be (is?) deceptive.

Two survivors of the Dream Doubt:
1. ___________________________________

2. ____________________________________

C. The Demon Doubt (the evil genius)

Meditation II

A.   The Cogito

Suppose that the evil genius is deceiving me about everything (i.e., that the very worst possibility is true). Is there then nothing I can be certain of?

Cogito ergo sum:_________________________

The argument:

1. ____________________________

2. ____________________________

3. Thus, _______________________

The "What's so special about thinking"? Argument:

1. ______________________________

2. ______________________________

3. Thus, _________________________

Descartes' Reply: ________________________________________

The "I"-Reference Objection:

Isn't Descartes begging the question? He's assuming the following principle: for every action (like thinking) there is an actor.

But is this true? An action statement where there's no actor: __________________

David Hume: there is no "I" to find by introspection.

X is the essence of Y = Y couldn't exist unless it had X.

So what is my essence? What am I? ___________________________

What is the essence of the wax? _________________________________

How do we come to know this? ___________________________________

What, then, does all of this mean? ________________________________

And what is our ultimate foundation of knowledge? ____________________

Dualism: the view that there are two kinds of substances (mental and physical), and they are independent of one another. In other words, minds/souls are immaterial substances, and bodies (all physical things) are material substances.

Furthermore, the essence of all material substances is _________________, and the essence of all immaterial substances is ____________________.

Materialism: the view that there is only one kind of thing or substance, namely, physical matter.

1. The Dependency Problem:
   
   
   
2. The Interaction/Ghost in the Machine Problem:
   
   
   

1. _____________________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________________
   Objection: __________________________________________________

1. What is it I know for certain (if anything)?
   
2. Is it possible to know that I exist?
   
3. What am I, essentially?
   
4. Can I survive the death of my body?