ATACP On-line

AT for Students with Mild Disabilities

Educators can no longer ignore the advent of computers. Technology is bursting into the classroom at all levels, as a tool for teachers to develop, monitor, and provide instruction, and for students to access and engage in learning. Although there are between 1.2 and 1.7 million computers in the schools, providing at least 1 computer for every 30 students, each student spends less than 4% of his/her total school time about 1 'h hours per week, according to the U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment [OTA], 1988) using the computer. As technologies continue to increase in power and decrease in cost, it is probable that we will see increasing access to and use of technology that will parallel that of the hand-held calculator; that is, a technology that was initially expensive and limited will become commonplace, inexpensive, and necessary to daily functioning.

Since Skinner invented his first machine to teach arithmetic in 1954 ISkinner, 1986), the state of the art of instructional technology has grown tremendously. It is time now to subject the hardware and software that traditionally have been used for delivering instruction to persons with disabilities to critical review, with special focus on their effectiveness in providing access to learning in light of new technological developments. The National School Boards Association statement that, by 1998, "advanced learning technologies will be commonly used for individualized instruction," has materialized (SALT, 1988, p. 20). As Goldman and Pellegrino (l987) indicated, we are embarking upon an educational era- in which it will become increasingly important to envision the teacher and the microcomputer as partners in constructing micro-educational learning environments for students. Certainly in the case of educating persons with varying degrees of ability, the issue of individualizing instruction delivery and providing access to that learning for students with disabilities is paramount. This article addresses that issue. A review of the legislative history of assistive technology [AT] is followed by a discussion of its benefits to and applications in learning environments for students with mild disabilities. The article concludes with a discussion of pertinent issues and suggestions for selecting and using the various technologies.

Legislative Background

Policies to encourage assistive and instructional technology use for students with varying disabilities have been promulgated by the federal government since the early 1980s. The potential capability of technology to enhance instruction as well as to pro-vide improved access to learning, living, working, and community environments became apparent to policy makers at the federal level and they, in turn, have created impetus for using assistive and instructional technology in serving individuals with disabilities from birth to death. Legislative initiatives such as P.L. 100-407--The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 [Tech Act] and P.L. 101-476--The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 [IDEA] illustrate the importance that the federal government has placed on AT.

AT and the IDEA

Passage of the IDEA provided a new name for P.L. 94-142--Education for All Handicapped Children Act [EHA]. The EHA did not mention assistive technology as special education or as a related or supplemental service and, therefore, most school systems did not include assistive technology as a component of the Individualized Education - Program (lEP). However, by the early 1980s, some schools had begun to recognize the benefits of technology in teaching students with disabilities and aIlowed AT devices and services to be incorporated into individual EPs. Additionally, in the early 1980s, federal research priorities of the Division of Innovation and Development (DID) of the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) established funding for research and development in the area of special education technology. OSEP also supported contracts such as the Center for Special Education Technology at the Council for Exceptional Children, which facilitated and enhanced national information exchange and professional communication among researchers, developers, trainers, and teachers on issues in special education technology. In P.L. 99-457-- Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986, an amendment to P.L. 94-142, federal priorities shifted from primary emphasis on research and development to training personnel in special education technology.

IDEA further modified the EHA to protect the rights of more students with disabilities, recognizing greater variability in the population, and emphasized the child--not his or her disability. The IDEA also provided additional funding for research and training in assistive technology, continuing the federal commitment to AT initiated by previous administrative and congressional policies. With regard to AT requirements in special educational IDEA "provides that if a child with a disability requires assistive technology devices or services, or both, in order to receive a free appropriate public education, the public agency shall ensure that the assistive technology devices or services are made available to that child, either as special education, related services, or as supplementary aids and services that enable a child with a disability to be educated in regular classes. Determinations of whether a child with a disability requires assistive technology devices or services under this program must be made on an individual basis through applicable individualized education program [IEP] and placement procedures" (Federal Register, 1991). Thus, it is no longer permissible to avoid providing appropriate technology as part of special education IEP goals and objectives.

There are also implications for assistive technology that are related to other requirements under the IDEA. For example, the legislation includes an emphasis on the transition to the workplace for students as young as 14. Students with disabilities are tomorrow's adults with disabilities, and they must be offered opportunities to compete in a technology-based marketplace. Thus, it is appropriate in many cases to incorporate assistive technology as a part of the individual transition plan in the IEP. These students will also ultimately be protected by P.L. 101-336--Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), which guarantees equal opportunity and reasonable accommodation for all persons with disabilities--in employment, public accommodation, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications. To assure these rights as mandated in the ADA, assistive technology should be employed as a reasonable accommodation to enable these individuals to participate in employment and community activities. Unfortunately, neither the regulations nor the interpretative guidelines provide examples of how different types of assistive technology can be used to give a job applicant or an employee with a disability reasonable accommodation in a wide variety of cost-effective ways (Williams, 1991), much as an appropriate education is not clearly defined under the rules for IDEA. The IDEA, along with other federal and state legislation such as the ADA, has utilized definitions of AT devices and services that were developed in the Tech Act of 1988.

The Tech Act

The Tech Act was designed to enhance the availability and quality of assistive technology devices and services to all individuals with disabilities and their families throughout the United States. The Tech Act was one of the first pieces of federal legislation addressing all disabilities and individuals of all ages. This statute legislated a program of state grants for developing and implementing a consumer-responsive statewide program of technology-related assistance for individuals with disabilities. Congress found that although technology can provide important tools for individuals with disabilities, there is a critical shortage of (a) access to assistive technology devices, (b) information on assistive technology devices and services, and (c) trained personnel to provide assistive devices and services to these individuals Behrmann, 1992).

The Tech Act developed a set of definitions that have now become common ground for most federal, state, and local institutions. The act divided assistive technology into two categories: services and devices.

Assistive Technology Services. The Tech Act defines the term assistive technology service as any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of assistive technology (AT) devices. The term includes:

1. Evaluating the needs of an individual in the individual's customary environment;

2. purchasing, leasing, or otherwise providing for the acquisition of AT devices by individuals with disabilities;

3. selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, or replacing assistive technology devices;

4. coordinating and using other therapies, interventions, or services with assistive technology devices, such as those associated with existing education and rehabilitation plans and programs;

5. training or technical assistance for an individual with disabilities or, where appropriate, the family; and

6. training or technical assistance for professionals, employers, or other individuals who provide employment services or are involved in the major life functions of individuals with disabilities (Franklin, 1991).

Assistive Technology Devices. The Tech Act defines the term assistive technology device as any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional with disabilities. Assistive technology devices can be further divided into two technology. Many "low tech" devices can be purchased at a hardware store, selected from a catalog, or fabricated using tools and materials that can be found in many well-equipped home workshops (Franklin, 1991). On the other hand, "high tech" devices frequently incorporate some type of computer chip, such as the "talking clock," a computer, or an augmentative communication device. Although the use - of some high-tech devices often proves very costly, this is not always the case. Many high-tech devices, such as the hand-held calculator, have become commonplace (Franklin, 1991) and inexpensive. Table 1 shows, for both categories, examples of devices that might be useful in special education.

The definitions of assistive technology devices and services are very broad and have wider implications for education than might appear at first glance. Much of the testimony at the 1987 and 1988 Senate hearings for the Tech Act focused on how technology could provide tools for persons with physical and sensory disabilities to use in accessing vocational, community, home, and school activities. Testimony generally emphasized using technologies to accommodate for physical barriers caused by physical or sensory impairments. Much of the testimony focused on using AT either as a standalone device to engage in activities (e.g., using augmentative communication devices to speak) or as an input or output device to access computers (e.g., an alternative keyboard for input or synthesized speech output to read text on a computer monitor).

The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), in their testimony, highlighted the need to view assistive technology in broader terms to address the needs of all individuals with disabilities. CEC emphasized that AT should be used to lessen cognitive and other learning disabilities that are prevalent in students who represent the majority of individuals in special education. For example, students with specific learning disabilities currently make up half of the nearly 5 million students with disabilities receiving special education services ((U.S. Department of Education, 1993). Along with students with mild mental retardation, speech impairments, and serious emotional disturbance, these students make up nearly 80% of that population. Most of these students do not exhibit any of the physical or sensory impairments that are often associated with the need for assistive technology.

The Tech Act definition of assistive technology devices is broad enough to address AT application to the learning needs of this large number of students. The definition states that assistive technology is used to increase maintain or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. If these functional capabilities include the ability to read, write, and otherwise engage in learning activities, then the use of computers in the instruction of students with learning disabilities meets the criteria for an assistive technology device.

Table 1. Examples of Assistive Technologies

Low Tech

Note-taking cassette recorders
Pencil grips
NCR paper/Copy machine
Simple switches
Head pointers
Picture boards
Taped instructions
Workbooks

High Tech

Optical character recognition
Calculator
Word Processors with spelling and grammar checking
Word prediction
Voice recognition
Speech synthesizers
Augmentative communication devices (e.g., Liberator)
Alternative keyboards (e.g. PowerPad, intellikeys)
Instructional software

Benefits for Students with Mild Disabilities

The just mentioned interpretation of assistive technology devices incorporates both access to learning activities and utilization of computer-based instruction (CBI). Acquisition, fluency, maintenance, and generalization make up four generally recognized stages of learning. Students with mild disabilities can engage in learning during all of these stages, but often at a different speed or understanding than students without disabilities. Often, these students can acquire knowledge and skills but not develop the fluency that would enable them to move to the higher levels of learning necessary for academic success. They may also fail to maintain skills or to cross-reference them to other learning. The result often is a failure to keep up with peers, resulting in their falling farther and farther behind. Effective special education interventions that address these problems have included the use of multiple modality instruction to enhance initial acquisition by employing learning strengths, drill, and practice routines to increase fluency and maintenance, and the use of learning strategies to encourage generalization.

Computer-based instruction is becoming an effective intervention in each of the previously mentioned stages of learning. Tutorial software is often used in the initial stages of acquisition. Here, the use of multimedia and hypermedia allow students to ac quire new knowledge and skills either through direct instruction or through experiential and exploratory learning. Drill and practice techniques that focus on developing automaticity have proven to be effective uses of computer based instruction in the area of developing Quency and maintenance. The necessity of acquiring basic skills at a high rate of proficiency in order to facilitate higher-order leaming (Hassel-bring, Goin, & Bransford, 1987), such as that required in generalization and problem solving, appears to support the concept that learning skills basic to a hierarchy of skills can lead to a self-propagating gain. Finally, the use of software that encourages higher-order thinking skills such as problem solving and generalization, found in simulations and in access and use of reference material and databases, suggests that CBI provides another tool that teachers can use in assisting students to improve functioning in their learning environment.

Access for Inclusion

Students with physical or sensory disabilities often face barriers that, in the past, have precluded them from being able to have access to and participate in regular education programs. As the trend toward inclusion gains momentum, teachers working with students with mild disabilities are likely to encounter individuals whose physical or sensory impairments previously required services that were not available in classes for students with mild disabilities, much less general education classes. In many cases, assistive technology can alleviate the need for some of those support services.

For example, a student with cerebral palsy may have a combination of mobility and speech impairments that can be overcome with assistive technology. A power wheelchair controlled by a joystick can provide independent mobility between classes and to various school activities. An adapted notebook computer with a speech cart can be used as a note-taking device, a writing tool, and an augmentative communication device that allows the student to use the computer to speak. The student thus can move from class to class and participate in all normal learning activities, using the computer to ask and answer questions or interact socially with peers or adults. He or she can use an alliterative keyboard to access instructional software or a word processor to complete assignments. In addition to physical impairments, a student with a brain injury, such as one that causes cerebral palsy, is likely to exhibit learning and cognitive disabilities similar to those of a student with a learning disability, mental retardation, or both, Assistive technology that enables him or her to overcome physical barriers to accessing the learning environment makes it more likely that placement will occur in a special or regular education setting designed to address learning disabilities rather than physical or sensory disabilities.

AT Applications in Instruction

Implications for beneficial applications of assistive technology go beyond the obvious advantages that these technologies provide students who have sensory and physical impairments. The learning difficulties of students with mild disabilities also can be ameliorated through the use of low- or high-tech assistive technology. In a national presentation at the 1994 conference of the Council for Exceptional Children, Lahm and Morrissette (1994) outlined seven areas of instruction where AT could assist students with mild disabilities. These areas include organization, note taking, writing assistance, productivity, access to reference material, cognitive assistance, and materials modification.

Organizational Tools

Many students with mild disabilities exhibit poor organizational skills. Teachers can provide students with assistive technology using both low- and high-tech organizational strategies. Low-tech solutions include teaching students to organize their thoughts or work using strategies that include flow charting, analyzing tasks, webbing or networking ideas, and outlining. These strategies can be accomplished using graphic organizers to visually assist the student in developing and structuring ideas. A template of a partially filled out outline or flow chart can be provided to the student, who then adds his or her own ideas to complete the work. High-tech solutions can also be utilized with the outline functions of word processing software such as Word Perfect or ClarisWorks(TM). These tools provide the student with a user-friendly way to set out major ideas or topics and then add subcategories of information that can later be used to develop written material or complete a task. Other software, such as ABC Flowcharter, allow either the teacher to make the visual organizing flow - chart or a student to create it to organize ideas or tasks.

Guidelines for Selecting or Creating Technology Assisted Learning Experiences

1. To what degree is the student involved in tasks that are broad in scope (not divided into fragmented tasks) and provide a challenge (intellectually demanding and not easily accomplished)?

2. To what degree does the student have control over the work process (not directed by a dominating hierarchical authority)? Is the teacher of the instructional delivery system a "coach" or resource not a "supervisor''?

3. To what degree is the student given opportunity to work collaboratively and cooperatively?

4. To what degree is the student given the opportunity to practice or apply communication skills during the learning task?

5. To what degree do the learning tasks in format and in goal vary from one another?

6. To what degree is the student encouraged to try different ways of coping with or addressing the learning task?

7. To what degree does the learning task explicitly teach problem-solving and higher-order thinking skills or provide an opportunity for the student to apply and reflect on these skills?

8. To what learning is there variety in what is considered acceptable approach, product , or solution to the learning task (responses are not standardized)?

9. To what degree are the student's personal ideas and contribution to the task or product encouraged and valued?

10. To what degree does the learning task intrinsically motivate the students (i.e., accomplishing the task is a reward unto itself and not seen primarily as a way to obtain a "material'' or "other bestowed" reward)?

Note Taking

Organizing and taking class notes is another area where many students with mild disabilities may have difficulty, particularly when they are included in regular education classes. Whether their problems are associated with fine motor skills related to writing, or to organizational skills, memory, or attention problems, many students cannot effectively make a written record for later use. A number of high and low-tech approaches are available to assist students in this area. Perhaps the simplest approach is for the teacher to provide copies of structured outlines that the student uses as an organizer in which to fill in information. With the advent of word processing and presentation software, it is also very easy and efficient to copy lecture notes or over-heads as handouts. Even students without disabilities enjoy having this type of assistance. Having the handouts enables students to attend to the teacher's presentation and class discussion rather than trying to get basic information down on paper. On the higher end of technology, AT can include the use of optical character readers (OCR) such as OmniPage Direct or In Words, software that can transform typewritten material into computer-readable text using a scanner. With this technology, a teacher's typewritten notes can be read by a voice synthesizer, allowing a student with reading difficulty to review lecture notes in the same manner as reviewing a tape recording.

If this is not possible, a peer can assist the student by duplicating notes using either NCR paper (carbonless copies) or a copy machine. Here, it is important to ensure that the peer possesses strong note-taking skills and legible handwriting. An alliterative, slightly more high-tech way to assist in note taking is through the use of microcassette recorders. These devices can be voice activated to conserve energy. They are also small, portable, Lightweight, and unobtrusive. Recorders are beneficial for students who have auditory receptive strength but they may be less useful for individuals needing visual input. Additionally, recorders may be ineffective when the microphone is not directed toward the speaker, or if-there is a substantial amount of background or ambient noise that makes it difficult to hear the teacher's or other students' questions or comments. Another method is to videotape class sessions. This may be particularly helpful for the visual learner who picks up on images and body language. Use of the VCR may also be effective for students who are not able to attend class for extended periods of time. One problem with this approach is that it usually requires someone to operate the VCR.

The use of portable computers can provide high-tech note taking for many students with mild disabilities. An inexpensive alternative to a full-function portable computer is the portable keyboard, such as the Alpha Smart(TM) or the PC-4. These full-size keyboards, costing about $250, have 4-line 40-character displays, operate on standard batteries, and can be interfaced with desktop computers to transfer files. They have standard word-processing capabilities and can store about 15 pages of text. They also may have spell checking, a database, calculator, alarm clock, and other useful functions for assisting students in taking notes and doing classwork. The PC-4 is compatible with Apple, Macintosh, or IBM systems, and the Alpha Smart(TM) is Macintosh-compatible. The limitations of these keyboards are in formatting information and the fact that more than four lines of text cannot be seen on the screen at one time. It is there fore necessary to transfer notes and other data to a full-function computer to complete work.

The advent of laptop or notebook computers that are as powerful as desktop computers, relatively light (4 to 6 pounds) and inexpensive ($900 to S2,0001, make AT reasonable for school-age students who need to take notes and perform other school-related tasks on the computer. The word-processing features allow students to edit easily, inserting information in the appropriate place rather than writing in the margins or drawing lines with a pencil, which are difficult to understand on later review. Students can also use the outline function of the word processor to keep information subcategorized and organized sequentially, similar to the low-tech structured outline mentioned previously. These computers not only provide students with access to word processing, but also to a variety of productivity tools that have improved work output for a vast array of jobs, from business executive to auto mechanic. For example, a student could simultaneously use the processor to take notes in algebra while employing the built-in calculator function to follow the teacher's blackboard example. The student can benefit both from the ease of writing on the computer and from the ability to practice the skill being taught, free from barriers imposed by paper-and-pencil tasks.

Writing Tools

The availability of word processing may be the most important application of assistive technology for students with mild disabilities. With increased emphasis on writing and thinking across the curriculum, students increasingly have been asked to engage in writing tasks. However, many students with mild disabilities have been identified as needing assistance in the language arts, specifically in writing. Computers and word processing software such as Bank Street Writer(TM), ClarisWorks(TM), or WordPerfect provide students with the ability to generate ideas and get them down on paper without the barriers imposed by working with paper and pencil. Writing barriers for students with mild disabilities include mechanics: spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors; process: generating ideas, organizing; drafting, editing, and revising; and motivations: clarity and neatness of final copy, reading ability, and interest in the process of writing. Computers and word processors are an important form of AT for students who are having problems in one or more of these areas.

Spell checkers, dictionaries, and thesaurus programs present in most word-processing programs assist in the mechanics of writing. If they are not available in the software, it is possible to use external devices such as the Franklin Language Master, which has a dictionary, thesaurus, phonetic speller, and calculator. This device also has voice synthesis capability.

There are also "transparent" software programs, (i.e., software that works simultaneously with other software, such as Thunder 7(TM) that can be used with text generated in any word processor or other computer program requiring text entry. This makes it possible to check spelling in a spreadsheet or database format. Grammar checkers such as Grammatik provide prompts to the student regarding correct usage of grammar, as well as feedback on punctuation and capitalization. Another form of writing mechanics assistance includes the use of macros, a feature that allows for abbreviations or short cuts in typing. Macros are generated by a combination of keystrokes such as that result in a string of characters or words being entered in the text. Macros can be used for spelling difficult text, for repetitive strings of words, or for formatting paragraphs and pages. They can save significant time in keyboarding for students exhibiting difficulty with either the cognitive or motor (keyboarding) requirements of the writing task. With some software such as Thunder 7(TM), macros can even be set to automatically correct common typographic errors and reversals, (e.g., teh, instead of the) without stopping the writing process for correction.

Word prediction is another type of assistive software that functions similarly to macros. If a student has difficulty with word recall or spelling and cannot easily use the dictionary or the saurus feature, then word prediction software such as MindReader, Handi-WORD, or Co:Writer(TM) responds with several choices of words that can be selected. Most of these software packages learn new words as they are typed; others predict words most often used by the student or words by context without waiting for a letter to be typed. Some can even speak the words so a student who has a good receptive vocabulary can use the software more effectively. Word prediction software is also assistive in that it can speed the typing process, particularly for students who type fewer than 20 wpm. It can also assist in errorless learning with the correct spelling of words always presented to the student.

One of the major writing barriers to students with mild disabilities is the process of generating and refining ideas and getting them down on paper. The writing process can be assisted through the use of tools such as outliners, templates, or a series of prompts or questions provided by the teacher. One teacher support tool to help in the training of students in writing is Process Writer(TM), a software program that runs the student through a writing task step by step. The student enters text by following prompts or instructions that the teacher has entered into the program. At the end of the session, the software combines all of the student's text entries, removes the teacher's instructions, and presents the student's complete work. Teachers can also use the editing capabilities of the word processor during the writing process, making electronic "suggestions" on the student's disk. If the computer is on a network, students can read each other's work and make comments for revision. Software-based feedback is also available. Grammar checkers can provide information on readability, including noting the number of multi-syllable words as well as average sentence length and number of paragraphs. Such assistance can help a student in revising and generating text. Painter (1994), in a comprehensive review of the literature, noted that students with mild disabilities having keyboarding skills of 8 to 10 words per minute generally generate substantially increased amounts of text when compared to students using paper and pencil. She also indicated that peer feedback was an effective way to assist students in generating and revising text.

The ability to generate a neat and legible final product is important to many students with disabilities. Motor or other problems that result in multiple erasures, tom papers, poor hand-writing, and so forth, can be overcome using computers. The editing capability of computers also reduces the need to constantly rewrite text that needs only minor modifications, and the final copy therefore is neat and legible. Additionally, valuable instructional time can be focused on generating ideas and text rather than on mechanical re-copying and rewriting. Motivation is also often increased through the desktop-publishing and multimedia capabilities of newer computers. A variety of fonts and styles is available, allowing the student to "customize" his or her writing and highlight important features. Students who have difficulty generating text can even fill a page, making it appear that they have more output. Large text also is effective in reducing the amount of material that is generated by a visually distractible student. Graphic images, drawings, and even video and audio can be added to the project to provide interest or highlight ideas. Multimedia often gives the student the means and the motivation to generate new and more complex ideas.

For students who have difficulty in reading, word recognition, or word recall, talking word processors such as IntelliTalk(TM), My Words, Kid Pix(TM), or Talking Text Writer may provide the additional assistance needed to be a successful writer. One program for the Macintosh, Write Outloud(TM), is particularly flexible in that it reads not only the text, but also all the menus and utilities, including the spell checker and thesaurus. Generally, all of these programs use synthesized, robotic speech rather than recorded speech because the content of the words is not predictable and recorded speech requires substantial computer memory.

Text can be read during keyboarding, providing auditory feedback to students who can benefit from hearing words spelled and spoken as they are entered into the computer. Text can also be read after input--spelling words letter by letter or reading whole words, lines, sentences, paragraphs, pages, and even documents. These features assist students in detecting errors such as misspelled words, incomplete or run-on sentences, and grammatical errors when they hear the words and sentences in addition to reading them. This is particularly helpful for students with reading and writing problems because their ability to detect errors auditorily is often significantly better than their ability to detect errors in written form. Additionally, the words being read are often highlighted on the computer monitor, helping students who are easily distracted to focus on the writing revision task.

Special features available on talking computers encourage students to increase their writing output. For example, IntelliTalk(TM) allows the student to select the speech from an array of different voices, male or female, adult or student. My Words not only speaks text, but allows students to select difficult words from a word bank and even add sound clips, such as music, for special effects. With early-learning word processing, Kid Pix(TM) allows the student to use picture icons to "stamp" words into sentences. The software then speaks the name or action depicted and can even switch from the picture to the word on the line of text. Other talking word-processing features are useful tools for teachers as well as students. These include the Talking Text Writer, which allows the teacher to add words to the document that have hidden phonetic spellings, so that specific words are pronounced correctly by the speech synthesizer. The teacher can also enter instructions behind key words so students can listen to one instruction at a time as they progress through the writing task. However, caution should be taken in teaching students to use the hidden speech feature. One never knows what a student might program the computer to say, even though the written text is innocuous. In general, talking word processors are motivational to students, and their capability to be used with headphones allows the student to use them without disturbing the rest of the class.

Productivity Tools

Other assistive productivity tools can be hardware based, software based, or both. For example, calculators can be the credit-card type or a software-based one that can be "popped up" and used while working in another application, such as a word processor. Spreadsheets, databases, and graphics software also offer productivity tools, enabling students to work on math or other subjects that may require calculating, categorizing, grouping, and predicting events. Similar to the AT functions of word processors, these productivity tools also can be found in small, portable alternative devices called personal digital assistants (PDAs), such as Sharp's Wizard or the Apple Newton. Costing between S200 and S700, some PDAs have built-in software applications that include word processing, spell checking and a thesaurus, graphics, databases, spread-sheets, and other tools. Newer PDAs can be used as AT notetaking devices via either a small but full-function key-board or a graphics-based pen input, allowing students to draw illustrations within their notes. An additional feature of some of these PDAs is the ability to translate words printed with the pen input device to computer-readable text. This text then can be edited with the word processor and transmitted to a full-function computer.

Expansion card-based software and hardware extensions also can expand PDA applications to include games, fax and telecommunications, and other applications. Databases and spreadsheet applications can be used to assist students with problem-solving tasks such as budgeting, balancing checkbooks and forecasting expenses, organizing information in categories, or finding commonalties and differences among groups of events and things for use in writing tasks. They can also be used as a memory aid, recalling addresses and telephone numbers, or for keeping information up to date without having to re-enter all of the data. Data can also be shared with desktop computers having the same software functions but expanded capabilities. With the Newton, data exchange does not even have to be hard-wired because infrared data transmission between the PDA and computer allows the systems to communicate when they are in physical proximity. The portable pocket-size PDA therefore can be combined with the capacity of the desktop computer to provide assistive-productivity tools that students with mild disabilities can use in various and changing locations.

Accessing Reference Material

Assistive technology can also enhance the ability of students with mild disabilities to gather and review information necessary for developing higher-order thinking skills. Many of these students have difficulty in gathering and synthesizing information for their academic work. In this arena, telecommunications and multimedia are providing new learning tools for students.

A computer and a modem can enable students to reach beyond their physical environment to access information. This is particularly appropriate for individuals who are easily distracted when going to new and busy environments, such as the library. Telecommunications networks such as America On-line, KidsNet, and Prodigy offer students access to the information "superhighway." Students can establish "CompuPals" with other students in far away places and obtain access to electronic encyclopedias, library references, and on-line publications, for example. Peer-to-peer writing often motivates students to generate more · text and thus gain more experience in writing. If they are slow writers, they can use a word processor "off-line," make corrections, and then "upload" the document to the network. However, it is important to note that these experiences should be structured, because the information highway is complex and it is easy to get distracted or lost as opportunities are explored. Some networks such as Prodigy provide friendly navigation assistance for students. Color graphics are used in addition to text, providing students who are stronger visual learners with easier access to the system. If students are poor readers, these networks can often be combined with computers that can read the screen to the student, granting accessibility to students with varying disabilities. Students who have difficulty reading large documents can "download" the document onto a disk and read it at their leisure with a talking word processor.

Multimedia-based tools are another way in which information can be made accessible to students through AT. Made possible by the development of CD-ROM technology storage and retrieval capability, multimedia's use of text, speech, graphics, pictures, audio, and video in reference-based software is especially effective in meeting the heterogeneous learning needs of students with mild disabilities. In the same way that multimodal instruction can address both learning strengths and weaknesses of students, multimedia provides an AT tool that achieves the same results. Reference material such as the Macmillan Dictionary for Children and the World Atlas provide access to information for students with mild disabilities by incorporating graphics and spoken text as well as pictures and videos in the reference material The New Grolier Multirnedia Encÿclopedia(TM), The Golden Book Encyclopedia(TM), and Mammals, A Multimedia Encyclopedia are examples of reference materials in an electronic multimedia format. Students can explore and obtain information by browsing through topics or searching for specific information. Hypermedia enables students to explore the encyclopedia in a nonlinear fashion, in the same manner as scanning from topic to topic in a print encyclopedia, by "clicking" the cursor on a button-- which can be a word, an icon, or a graphic. Text can often-be spoken by the computer, and multimedia enhancements allow students to view video and audio reproductions of information. For example, students can now watch and hear Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech, or see a graphic animation of how the heart functions. This technology brings more reality to the learning process and enhances students' understanding of the information they are seeking. Researching topics is also enhanced by the computer, allowing the student to enter combinations of key words (e.g., computers, assistive technology, and instruction) that the computer uses to search the thousands of encyclopedia articles and identify the five or six that include these key words. Thus, the student does not have to spend unproductive time reading many articles. This benefits students who are slow readers or who have organizational problems and are overwhelmed by large amounts of information. They are able to use their ability to identify broad topics and focus on specific information that will be useful in their research. For example, a student preparing a written report on a particular state capital can find a map of the state, identify the capital, get its map, and then obtain information on the population, demographics, and special features of that city. Textual information can generally be captured using a notepad feature, saved, and then inserted into a word-processed document for insertion into the final report.

Cognitive Assistance

A vast array of application program software is available for instructing students through tutorials, drill and practice, problem solving, and simulations. A thorough discussion of these applications is beyond the scope of this article, although they should be viewed as assistive technology in that they help students improve and maintain their functional abilities in academic work. However, there are a number of instructional applications, particularly those incorporating simulations, that teachers can use to help students learn higher-order thinking skills. Many of the assistive technologies described previously can be combined with these programs to develop and improve cognitive and problem-solving skills.

Note taking, organization, and accessing reference material are elements required in the writing process. In addition-to the use of a program such as Process Writer, described earlier, these skills can be enhanced using programs such as Classroom Newspaper Maker, a tutorial and simulation program that teaches students to think, listen, conduct research, take notes and organize writing through the objective of developing a newspaper. Students learn how to develop organizational skills necessary to determine what to write, how to gather information and take notes, and how to develop technical writing skills. Similarly, Research Paper Writer takes students through the process of how-to interview, use library information, and take notes to generate a simulated paper.

Other instructional software programs have been designed to teach productivity applications, such as training students to use reference materials. National Inspirer is a simulation that teaches geography, map reading, and cooperative planning. It enables students to use maps and information to learn about locations, resources, and commodities in the United States. Community Exploration provides a simulation of a city map that allows students to explore a fictional community in detail and depth. Regions of the city can be selected and expanded on the map. The students can even identify buildings that they would like to explore and then proceed through the buildings room by room. The Cruncher is a software pro gram that teaches spreadsheet functions. In addition to being simple to use, it has the capability to read all of the text, formulas, and numbers in a spreadsheet with a voice synthesizer, providing additional assistance during error checking for students with mild disabilities who need auditory feedback. This program is also useful in teaching math skills and utilizes real data and mathematical formulas to make predictions and calculate the effects of different variables.

Simulations are often used to help students learn content and process and to enhance learning in math and science. Kid Cad is a three-dimensional architectural design training program that allows the power of computer assisted design (CAD) to be used by students, reinforcing math skills in a simulation that designs buildings and rooms. In science, Operation Frog is a simulation that enables a student to use multimedia to dissect a frog on the computer. This can replace a traditional lab experience, and each of the steps in the process can be repeated as many times as necessary for the student to learn the content, a task that would not be possible in a lab setting where the experiment only allows one attempt. Hip Physics is another multimedia science software package that makes the properties of physics such as speed, motion, and magnetism seem real. The software uses real data and images, as well as animation, to illustrate laws of physics that otherwise are often difficult for students with mild disabilities to comprehend.

Processes for problem solving and critical thinking can be developed through the use of simulations. The Carmen Sandiego(TM) series of mysteries use geography and research skills to solve crimes. Group decision making activities found in the Decisions, Decisions software series combine content on such areas as the environment, AIDS, immigration, and so forth, with cooperative decision making in either small or large groups. Conflict resolution within groups can also be taught using Getting to the Heart of It, which incorporates role-playing, debate, decision-making, and critical-thinking skills.

The major assistive technology in the area of reading is talking word processors, discussed previously. Multimedia CD-ROM-based application programs offer another tool for assisted reading for students with mild disabilities. Similar to talking word processors, CD-based books, such as those published by Discis Knowledge Research, include high-interest stories like "Scary Poems for Rotten Kids" that utilize the power of multimedia to motivate students to read. These books read each page of the story, highlighting the words as they are read. Additional clicks of the mouse result in pronunciation of syllables, and then a definition or explanation of the word is provided. When the student clicks on a picture, a label appears. A verbal pronunciation of the label is offered when the student clicks the mouse again. These books are available in both English and Spanish, so students can read in their native language while being exposed to a second language.

Where Can I Get That?

The following is a list of the various hardware and software mentioned in this article. Each entry includes whether for PC-compatible or Apple computer and abbreviated supplier name. Full supplier names are included below.

ABC Flowcharter--Intel (RoYkore)

Alpha Smart--Mac (Intelligent Peripheral)

Astaund (Gald Disk)

Authority--Intel (Interactive)

Bank Street Writer--Mac/Apple/DOS (Scholastic)

Carmen Sandiego--Mac/Apple/DOS (Broderbund)

ClarisWorks 2.0--Mac/lntel (Claris Corp. MacWarehouse)

Classroom Newspaper Maker--Mac/WlN/Mac-CD/WIN-CD (T. Snyder)

Community Exploration--Mac-CD (MacWarehouse)

Co:Writer (D. Johnston)

The Cruncher--Mac/WlN (Davidson)

Decisions, Decisions Series--Mac/Apple/DOS (T. Snyderì)

Discis Books (Discis)

First Connections: The Golden Book Encyclopedia--Mac-CD (Software Toolworks)

Franklin Language Master (Franklin)

Getting to the Heart of It (video kit; T. Snyder)

The Golden Book Encyclopedia--Mac-CD (Software Toolworks)

Grammatik 2.û--Mac/DOS/WlN (Reference)

HandiWORD--Intel (Micrasystems)

Harvard Graphics for Windows--Intel (Software Pub.)

Hip Physics--Mac (T. Snyder)

Hypercard--Mac (Apple)

Hyperstudia GS--Apple IIGS (R. Wagner)

Hyperstudio Mac--Mac (R. Wagner)

IntelliTalk--Mac/Apple/DOS (IntelliTools)

InWords--Apple (West Code)

Kid Cad--WIN (Davidson)

Kid Pix/Companion--Mac/DOS (Broderbund)

KidsNet (America)

Kid Works 2 Story Player--Mac/DOS/WlN/Mac-CD/WIN--CD (Davidson)

Macmillan Dictionary for Children--Mac-CD/DOS/WIN-CD (Macmillan)

Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia--Intel (National Geo.)

MindReader (Brown Bag)

Multimedia Warkshop--Mac/Mac-CD (Davidson)

My Words--Mac (Hartley)

National Inspirer--Mac/Apple/DOS (T. Snyder)

The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia--Mac-CD (Grolier)

Newton (Apple)

OmniPage Direct & OmniPage Professional--Mac (Caere)

Operation Frog--Mac/Apple/DOS (Scholastic)

PC-4--Apple/Mac/lntel (Perfect)

Persuasion--Mac/lntel (Aldus)

Process Writer--Mac/Apple/DOS (Scholastic)

Prodigy (America)

Quickie Hand Scanner--Apple (Vitesse)

Research Paper Writer--Mac/WlN/Mac-CD/WlN-CD (T. Snyder)

Scary Poems for Rotten Kids--Mac (Discis)

Talking Text Writer--Apple (Scholastic)

ToolBook--Intel (Asymetrix)

Thunder 7 1.5.3--Mac (MacWarehouse)

Wizard (Sharp)

WordPerfect--Intel/Mac (WordPerfect)

WordPerfect Presentations--Intel (WordPerfect)

World Atlas--Mac-CD/DOS (software Toolworks)

Write Out Loud--Mac (D. Jahnston)

Supplier

Aldus Corp. 800/288-6832

America Online 800/827-6364 (1-800/776-3449 for Prodigy 1-800/342-4460 for KidsNet)

Apple Computer Corp. 800/767-2775

Asymetrix Corp. 206/637-1600

Broderbund 800/521-6263

Brown Bag Software 408/559-4545

Caere Corp.

Claris Carp. 800/735-7393

Davidson 800/545-7677

Discis Knowledge Research Inc. 800/567-4321

Don Johnston Inc. 800/999-4660

Franklin Electronics Inc. 800/821-6344

Gold Disk 800/982-9888

Grolier Electronic Publishing Inc. 800/356-5590

Hartley Courseware Inc. 800/247-1380

Intelligent Peripheral Devices Inc. 408/737-9302

IntelliTools 800/899-6687 ext. 501

Interactive Image Technologies 416/361-0333

Macmillan New Media

MacWarehouse 800/255-6227

Microsystems Software 508/879-9000

National Geographic Society 800/368-2728

Perfect Solutions 800/726-7086

Reference Software 415/541-0222

Roger Wagner 80û/421-6526

Roykore Corp. 415/563-9175

Scholastic 800/541-5513

Sharp Electronics 800/237-4277

Software Publishing Corp. 800/336-8360

The Software Toolworks Inc. 415/883-3000

Tom Snyder Productions 800/342-0236

West Code (San Diega)

WordPerfect Corp. 800/451-5151

Vitesse Inc. (La Puente, CA)

Modified Materials

The final area where teachers can have an impact on delivering AT to students with mild disabilitics is in computer-based instruction customized by the teacher. Special educators are familiar with the need to create instructional materials or, at the very least, customize or modify materials to meet the heterogeneous needs of students with disabilities. Customization of a product system to improve academic functioning meets one of the criteria of the definition of an assistive technology device. In the past, the ability of teachers to develop their own instructional software has been limited to adding only content in pre-developed software (i.e., putting the spelling words into a drill-and-practice program). Anything else required an extensive knowledge of computers and programming syntax and the time to author sophisticated instructional programs. Today, however, there are powerful multimedia authoring and presentation tools that educators can use to develop and modify computer-based instructional materials for students with mild disabilities, providing a learning tool that these students can access and use to balance their weak areas of learning with their strong areas.

Anchored instruction, a powerful instructional AT tool, is defined by Hasselbring and Goin l19941 as shared experiences between the teacher and the learner that help the student develop new knowledge and understanding through the use of rich mental models. Although mental models are often difficult to construct from text and language, video can be effectively used for assisting these students to develop such models (Hasselbring & Goin, 1994). Video has been utilized in classrooms for decades, but it has yet to fulfill its promise, particularly because the linear format of a videotape makes it difficult to quickly and easily highlight information in short clips and allow the student to replay those clips for further practice and instruction without substantial planning or editing by the teacher. However, with the introduction of camcorders and multimedia, teachers can access the exact video that they want when they need it. The advent of faster and more powerful microcomputers with large hard drives, CD-ROMs, and high-resolution monitors, combined with easy-to-use authoring and presentation software packages able to take advantage of video and audio, make it feasible for teachers to develop their own instructional materials for use with computers. The ability to access digitized pictures from standard cameras by using the Kodak CD system, by scanning images, or by using digital cameras, along with the capability of digitizing and editing video from camcorders, TVs, or video-tapes and recording them to disk or CD, makes it possible to develop the types of shared learning experiences from the teacher's and student's environment that can be the basis for effective anchored instruction.

Authoring software such as Hypercard(TM) and HyperStudio(TM) for the Macintosh and ToolBlook or Authority(TM) for Intel machines allows teachers, and even students, to develop instructional software that can incorporate video, pictures, animation, and text into hypermedia-based instruction. Multimedia authoring software is very easy to learn and use. In fact, authoring software packages are even available for young children. Kid Pix/Companion(TM) allows young students to develop their own slide shows from drawings, pictures, and text. The Multimedia Workshop is a multimedia writing-development tool that lets students turn their own written compositions into multimedia presentations.

For example, if a teacher's objective is to teach map reading, it is possible to scan in an image of a local map where locations can be made into buttons that the student can click on, causing a short video clip of the familiar location to be played. A set of questions could be asked using both text and synthesized speech to have the student give directions on how to-get to the location shown on the video. The student could then write directions (or draw his or her own map). Digitized pictures of landmarks could also be incorporated into the directions. These directions, along with the images, could then be printed for use in complicating the assignment. Without the ability to author and incorporate multi-media easily into instructional software, such computer-based training would be impossible because of the need to incorporate the shared learning concepts inherent in local environments into the assisted-learning process. Such instruction can make learning more efficient and certainly more real for students for whom abstract learning and generalization may be difficult.

Although authored instruction can be and often is used to teach groups of students, there also exists a genre of software-development tools incorporating multimedia that are specifically designed for group presentations. Presentation software such as Aldus Persuasion(TM), Harvard Graphics(TM) for Windows, and Astound are designed for developing "slide show" presentations. These packages allow teachers to enter the content of their lecture or presentation into a word processor-type outliner, which then converts the text into captioned slides with information presented in bulleted format. The software design restricts the amount of data that can be put on the screen at one time, making it easier for the students to process the information. Various colors, type fonts, designs, and backgrounds are available to enhance the presentations, and clip art, pictures and music, voice, and video all can be inserted easily. The presentation can be linear in nature, such as that used in a standard 35mm slide show, or buttons can be incorporated that allow the teacher to respond to questions and discussion by moving to different segments of the presentation as appropriate. Combined with a projection device such as a large TV monitor or a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel and an overhead projector, the presentation can go directly from the computer to the screen. With such instructional media, teachers can develop and customize very sophisticated instructional presentations that are relevant to the needs of their students. Students can also save these presentations for later use and edit or enhance them as necessary.

Appropriate Use of Technology

Computers and technology in the classroom are on the verge of changing instruction and learning for both students and teachers. The days of having one Apple II computer in the class will soon be behind us. If there will be only one computer in the classroom, then it needs to be powerful enough to incorporate multimedia and be used for group instruction. Ideally, that computer should be a teacher-instructional workstation with a projection system. Preferably, it should be a portable notebook computer so that the teacher can take it home to develop effective multimedia presentations as well as efficiently complete the additional paperwork required in special education, (e.g., IEPs, reports, grades, and reviews of students' writing). However, one computer per class is really no longer adequate, particularly as we look at the AT needs of students. These technologies become student tools to access, facilitate, and engage in effective learning. It would not be effective to teach writing to a class of students with one pencil and one piece of paper. If computers are to be an effective assistive technology for writing, at least one computer must be accessible for every three or four students. These computers need to be located where learning takes place--that is, in the classroom, not in a laboratory. How can we teach students to use the tools of the future when there are not enough computers for them to use and they cannot get to them when they are needed?

There is one final important issue in the discussion of selecting and using technology to assist students with disabilities in their learning, relating to how we use computers with students who have mild disabilities and who may come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Specific trends on computer use have been reported from longitudinal studies conducted by Becker and Sterling (1987) and Cosden, Gerber, Goldman, Semmel, and Semmel (1986). Collectively, they found

- In schools with higher-ability students and schools with students -from more advanced backgrounds, there were better student-computer ratios and a higher proportion of teachers who were "expert computer users";

- in all schools, computer use was dominated by boys and higher achieving students;

- in regular or mixed-ability classes, the computer was used less often than in classes for special students (gifted or disabled)

- in classes for students with lower ability, the computer was used mainly for individual drill and practice; and

- in mixed-ability classes, students with lower abilities or disabilities spent less time with problem-solving software and more time with drill and practice software than the nondisabled students.

Asen (1994a) noted that equity concerns regarding technology have generally focused on access to technology. She posited that perhaps the real concern should be on how technology is used in learning environments, particularly as the long-term effects of that use may have a substantial influence on students' ultimate roles in the work force. Asen made the case that, although drill and practice may be appropriate for developing fluency, the remediation of basic literacy skills, primarily through drill and practice, should not be the single focus of technology-based instruction. It is critical to provide students with technology-based learning experiences that allow them to develop the skills to use productivity tools, be they assistive technology or not, and to develop the problem-solving and higher-order thinking skills that are inherently incorporated in using technology in learning. If we do not teach students to use these tools, then we are, in effect, discriminating against them.

Conclusion

The success or failure of any instructional intervention depends on how it is used (Johnston, 1990). Utilizing assistive technology as a tool for students to access or engage in learning is emerging as an important component of instruction in special education settings. Cosden et al. (1986); Johnson, Pugach, and Devlin (1990); MacArthur, Haynes, and Malouf ll986), and many others have demonstrated the usefulness of computer-based instruction for students with learning and other disabilities. Although these studies have shown that the computer is effective as a supplement to teacher-delivered instruction, as well as an effective learning tool for students, Lieber and Semmel (1985) pointed out that the technology itself was not responsible for these positive outcomes. Decisions about the best use of computers and other instructional and AT applications with students with disabilities will lie with the teacher, depending on his or her competencies and attitudes.

The OTA report Power On! New Tools for Teaching and Learning IU.S. Congress, OTA, 19881 indicated that technology can indeed make a powerful impact on client outcomes if personnel have (a) training in skills to use the technology, (b) education that provides vision and understanding of developing technology, (c) support for experimentation and innovation, and (d) time for learning and practice. Investments in technology acquisition and use cannot be fully effective unless professionals receive appropriate training and support. It is the students who ultimately benefit from our investment in new instructional and assistive technologies and in the personnel who utilize them.

Michael M. Behrmann, EdD, is current; on associate professor of education at George Mason University in Fairfax, VA. Address: Michael M. Behrmann, Center for Human Disabilities (MS 1 F2), George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030.

References

Asen, S. (1994a February). Another side of equity. Keynote address of the annual conference of the Technology and Media Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, St. Paul, MN.

Asen, S. (1994b). Teaching and learning with technology. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Becker, H. J., & Sterling, C. W. (1987). Equity in school computer use: National data and neglected considerations. Journal of Educational Computing Research 3, 289-311.

Behrmann, M. M., Morrisselte 5. K., & McCollen, M. H. (1992). Assistive technology issues for Virginia schools [Technical report]. Submitted to the Virginia State Special education Advisory Committee.

Cosden. M. A., Gerber, M. M., Goldmon, S. R., Semmel, D. S.. R Semmel, M. I. (1986ì. Survey of microcomputer access and use by mildly handicapped students in southern California. Journal of Special Education Technology 7(4), 5-13.

Davis, L., & Nelson, J. (1993). Critical information needs of state directors of special education [Technical report]. Alexandria, VA: National association of State Directors of Special Education, National Information Action Center.

Federal Register 1991, August 19 (to be codified at 34 C.F.R. 300).

Franklin, K. S. (1991). Supposed employment and assistive technology--A powerful partnership. In 5. L. Griffin & W. G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide supported employment. Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment.

Goldman, S. R.,& Pellegrino, J. W. (1987). Information processing and educational microcomputer technology: Where do we go from here? Journal of Learning Disabilities 20, 144-154.

Hosselbring, T., & Goin, L. (1994, June). Advanced institute: Anchored instruction multimedia for enhancing teacher education-Presentation at Vanderbilt University, Noshville, TN.

Hosselbring, T., Goin, L, & Bransford, J. (1987, April) Assessing and developing math automaticity in learning disabled students: The role of micro-computer technology. Paper presented at The annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC.

Johnson, L. J., Pugach, M. C., Devlin, S. (1990). Professional collaboration. Teaching Exceptional Children 22 9-11.

Johntson, N. S. (1990). School consultation: The Iraining needs of teachers and school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 27, 51-56.

Lohm, E., & Morrissette, S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children Denver, CO.

Lieber, J. & Semmel, M. 1. (1985) Effectiveness of computer application to instruction with mildly handicapped learners: A review. Remedial and: Special Education 6(5) 5-12.

MacArthur;, C. A., Haynes, J. A., & Malouf, D.- B. (1986). Learning disabled students 'engaged time and classroom interaction: The impact of computer assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2(2) 189-197.

Pointer, D. D. (1994). A study to determine the effectiveness of computer-based process writing with learning disabled students under two conditions of instruction: Peer collaborative process model and nonpeer collaboration process model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation George Mason University, Fairfax VA.

SALT (Society for Applied Learning Technology). (1980). Report: Computers alone can't solve schools' problems. Instructional Delivery Systems, 2(2), 20.

Skinner, B. (1986, October) Programmed instruction revisited. Phi Della Kappan, pp. 103-110.

U.S. Congress, Office - of Technology Assessment. .(1988). Power on! New tools for leaching and; learning (OTA-SET-379). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing office.

U.S. Deportment of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services. (1993). Fifteenth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.

Williams, R. R. (1991). Assistive technology and people with disabilities: Separating fact from fiction. A.T. Quarterly 2(5), 7.

Appendix

What Policy Makers Are Saying About Assistive Technology

With regard to assistive technology, IDEA (P.L. 101-4761 "provides that if a child with a disability requires assistive technology devices or services, or both, in order to receive a free appropriate public education, the public agency shall ensure that the assistive technology devices or services are made available to that child, either as special education, related services, or as supplementary aids and services that enable a child with a disability to be educated in regular classes. Determinations of whether a child with a disability requires assistive technology devices or services under this program must be made on an individual basis through applicable individualized education program (IEP) and placement procedures" (Federal Register, 1991)

National Needs

As a result of the changes in federal policy under the IDEA, assistive technology has been identified as an important topic for developing information and policy guidelines by policy makers and implementers. The National Association of State Directors of Special Education (NASDSE) released a report, critical information Needs of State Directors of Special Education, in which more than 80% (42) of the state directors of special education in the United States who responded identified 39 issues as being important enough to form the basis of framing a national information needs agenda and developing a plan to address those needs (Davis & Nelson, 1993). Of these, 10% (4) were related to assistive technology The four critical information needs in assistive technology were:

-What are states doing to meet the new assistive technology requirements, including the development of interagency agreements?

-What assessment/evaluation guidelines are available for determining assistive technology needs of students with disabilities?

- What low-cost, yet effective, high-tech and low-tech assistive devices are available for use in the classroom and at home?

- What are best practices used by states to evaluate effectiveness of assistive technology?

State Needs--Virginia, A Case in Point

The issues related to assistive technology at the national level still need to be implemented at state and local levels. As a result of the IDEA, the Virginia Department of Education's State Special Education Advisory committee (SSEAC) conducted a statewide assistive technology survey of the 134 local education agency (LEA) directors of special education. Ninety-four systems (70%) responded. Analysis of the survey data revealed five important issues and trends in assistive technology (Behrmann, Morrissette, McCallen, 19921).

State-wide a small portion of eligible special education students are receiving assistive technology services and devices. In over three-fourths of the school systems, fewer than 10% of their special education students receive assistive technology services. This level of service delivery may be due to several reasons. First, the per-student level of funding across the state is inadequate with regard to the costs of training, service delivery specialists, services, and devices associated with assistive technology budgets. Second, the lack of trained personnel to identify, assess, and implement needed assistive technology for students may result in fewer students being served. Third, lack of state or local policies on assistive technology (funding, ownership, IEP inclusion, etc.) may not facilitate the ability of trained professionals to initiate services.

Policy relating to assistive technology on IEPs and other issues is lacking. Over 90% of the respondents indicated that fewer than 10% of their students have assistive technology IEP goals and objectives. Additionally, the data suggest that schools with less funding were more likely to rate IEP goals and objectives as more important than were schools with more funding. One possibility for this correlation is that inclusion of goals and objectives on IEPs might result in increased availability of funds. On the other hand, systems with AT budgets may be wary of the increased expense of services and devices when written into IEPs.

Other than in IEP policies, there are currently no guidelines or model programs for assistive technology that have been developed by the state to assist school systems in implementing assistive technology services: For example, the issue of where school-owned devices can be used is unclear. Two-thirds of the systems that have made a decision regarding device usage and where these devices can be used noted that it is permissible for devices to be used at home. However, 20% did not respond to the issue and 75% reported that fewer than 10% of their students used their devices at home. Liability for damage, both for school-owned and privately owned devices, is an issue for families and schools. Damage to devices by untrained persons not owning the devices is another unaddressed issue. Policy guidelines for these and other issues need to be developed by state and local agencies.

There is a substantial need for assistive technology trained professionals across the commonwealth. Training issues identified as having great importance to survey respondents included competency or certification, training of multi-disciplinary service delivery teams, and access to information and referral. Data indicated that nearly half of the respondents did not want assistive technology competencies mandated by the state, and an additional quarter of the respondents had no opinion. Only one-fourth of the-respondents indicated that state-mandated competencies are desirable. This may be due to the lack of trained personnel available most universities do not provide this training, as well as the lack of funding to train inservice personnel.

Multidisciplinary teams for AT service delivery are being used throughout Virginia. These teams incorporate the expertise of educational professionals, including occupational therapists, physical therapists, speech-language clinicians, special educators, and administrators. Respondents to the survey reported these professionals as responsible for identification, assessment, and evaluation of the needs of students requiring assistive technology services; determination of eligibility; and the evaluation of the effectiveness of the AT devices and services. More than 80% of the respondents identified these issues as important for professional development. Due to the rapid growth of technology in the last decade, professionals need information concerning the use of assistive technology with their students. Rated as highly important was the need for resource files and newsletters on AT.

Technical assistance and other support services are providing most of the training across the commonwealth. Survey responses indicate that 18 of the systems in Virginia have no formal assistive technology training (consultation, inservice, etc. in place, yet more than 60% of the respondents identified approximately half of their professionals as needing beginning training in AT. Technical assistance and training is currently available in Virginia through state and local sources: Several local school systems provide in service training and support in assistive technology (some using state inservice training funds), while some university training programs incorporate AT into preservice and continuing education coursework. Statewide, two sources of technical assistance and training exist--the VADOE Technical Assistance Centers (TAC) and the DRS Virginia Assistive Technology System's (VATS) Assistive Technology Resource Consortia. One, indicator of the effectiveness of this type of support is that the consultation provided by technical assistants was responsible for more than 80% of the training statewide. This may be due to the fact that these services are at no cost to the school systems, one-third of which had no training budget. Second, the data also showed that the greatest use of technology in the schools was in preschool programs where the preschool TACs have been making concerted training efforts in technology during the last 6 years.

Funding for AT devices services and training is a primary concern for the majority of school systems in the commonwealth. Even with 40 systems not responding to the survey, data showed that at least one-third of the 134 school systems in the commonwealth have no funds budgeted for either AT service delivery or training. More than 60% of the respondents indicated that AT funding came from local sources, whereas only 37% indicated it came from state funding. Additionally, nearly 30% of the systems received grant funds to supplement their assistive technology budgets. More than 80% of the systems indicated that identification of funding sources was important. There are many sources of funding for AT, including federal grants and entitlement, state education funds, other state agency funds, local education funds, private insurers, and private sector and foundation grants. VATS has recently convened representatives from 10 state agencies, including the Department of Education, to develop a statewide policy on assistive technology. The recommendations suggest that bureaucratic and fiscal barriers be minimized, interagency collaboration and sharing of fiscal responsibility be promoted, and public private partnerships be developed to improve access to and funding for assistive technology.

Recommendations for Virginia